7ft 

/9/f 



/ f 



TX 946 
.U5 
1919 
Copy 1 



COUNCIL OF NATIONAL DEFENSE 

WOMAN'S COMMITTEE 

. iljj _i_ 



AGENCIES FOR 

THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS 

WITHOUT PROFIT 

A SURVEY OF THEIR DEVELOPMENT 
WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO 
THEIR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC EFFECT 



Prepared by 

1VA LOWTHER PETERS, Ph. D. 

Under the direction of 

THE FOOD PRODUCTION AND HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 

OF THE WOMAN'S COMMITTEE 

COUNCIL OF NATIONAL DEFENSE 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1919 



,tts 



WOMAN'S COMMITTEE, COUNCIL OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 



DEPARTMENT OF FOOD PRODUCTION AND HOME ECONOMICS. 

Mrs. Stanley McCobmick, chairman. 

Miss Helen W. Atwateb, executive chairman. 

ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON SURVEY OF AGENCIES FOR SALE OF 
COOKED FOODS WITHOUT PROFIT. 

Mrs. Maby H. Abel, 

Writer on Home Economics subjects; Hume Economics Director, Maryland 
Food Administration. 
Miss Helen W. Atwateb, 

Specialist in Home Economies, United States Department *f Agriculture^ 

Dr. SOPHONISBA BBECKINBIDGE, 

Professor, Chicago School of Civics and Philanthropy, Chicago, III. 
Dr. Ducile Eaves, 

Director, Research Department, Women's Educational and Industrial 
Union, Boston, Mass. 
Dr. Vernon Kellogg, 

Professor, Leland Stanford University; United States Food Administration. 
Miss Mable Hyde Kittbebge, 

Writer and organizer of model housekeeping enterprises, public kitchens, 
etc., New York City. 
Dr. C. F. Langwobthy, 

Chief, Office of Home Economics, United States Department of Agriculture. 
Dr. Ruby Gbeen Smith, 

Division of Women's Work, Extension Work North and West, United 
States Department of Agriculture. 
2 

0. of M. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Paeie. 

Introductory shit ement 5 

General purpose of the survey 7 

Pre-war experiments in communal feeding !J 

The national kitchens of Great Britain 25 

The American situation 44 

Conclusions GO 

Appendix A. — .Study of equipment for a central kitchen, by the Women's 

Educational and Industrial Union of Boston 65 

Appendix B. — Schedules of equipment used by New York School Lunch 
Committee, Association for the Improvement of the Condition of the 

Poor 74 

Appendix C. — Schedule of standardized cooking appliances; taken from 
Handbook of National Kitchens and Restaurants, National Kitchens 

Division, (British) Ministry of Food, July, 1918 77 

3 



INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT. 



The survey here reported was decided upon by the Woman's Com- 
mittee of the Council of National Defense 'in the spring of 1918, 
and the plan for it was developed by an advisory committee of 
persons known throughout the country for their understanding of 
the economics of nutrition. At the time when it was undertaken, 
no one could foresee how food conditions might develop in the United 
States, and an intelligent policy for national preparedness demanded 
the collection of reliable information regarding the practical methods 
and economic results of group or community cooking wherever it 
had been tried. Although the outcome of the war has now changed 
the international food situation and there seems less danger of an 
acute shortage in this country, food conditions are still far from 
normal. ^Ye may yet be called on to share a large proportion of our 
supplies with less fortunate nations, and prices are still so high that 
the adequate feeding of many families remains a serious problem. 
Questions of domestic labor are also becoming more rather than less 
complicated, both in homes which depend on servants and where the 
woman who formerly kept house for her own family is now em- 
ployed outside. Moreover, the general interest in all these questions 
is much greater than formerly, while reliable information is very 
scarce. It has, therefore, seemed wise to publish this report, though 
the original purpose in making it no longer holds. 

It is realized fully that the material here presented does not cover 
the whole subject of the preparation of food outside of the home. 
Such a complete survey would have involved investigations beyond 
the functions and means of the "Woman's Committee. No effort has 
been made to include restaurants, even those on a cooperative or 
community basis, except when they are closely connected with enter- 
prises which sell cooked food to be consumed elsewhere. Commer- 
cial canning factories, bakeshops, delicatessen shops, etc., have also 
been disregarded together with community canning kitchens, cooper- 
ative exchanges for home-cooked foods, etc., though the advisory com- 
mittee is probably unanimous in the belief that if properly con- 
trolled as to sanitation and price, some of these offer great promise 
of relief in this country. The study is limited to noncommercial 
agencies which strive to remove or lessen the routine preparation of 

5 



G INTRODUCTORY. 

three meals a day in the individual home without weakening the 
privacy and unity of the family group. The attempt has also been 
made to include practical information as to organization, manage- 
ment and equipment so that anyone considering the establishment of 
such an enterprise might profit by previous experience. 

In collecting the information here summarized, Mrs. Peters has 
had access not only to the published documents in the various Gov- 
ernment libraries, but also to unpublished material in the files of the 
United States Food Administration, for whose help and courtesy 
special acknowledgement should be made. 

Similar acknowledgement is due to Mrs. Abel for the use of her 
unique collection of reports, descriptions, and personal notes concern- 
ing the earlier enterprises in this country and abroad. Without this 
otherwise inaccessible material many sections of the survey would 
have been impossible. 

The committee is also greatly indebted to the Woman's Educa- 
tional and Industrial Union of Boston and the New York School 
Lunch Committee of the Association for Improving the Condition 
of the Poor for permission to print the hitherto unpublished ma- 
terial given in Appendices A and B. 

Miss Kittredge and Dr. Kellogg have gone abroad on special mis- 
sions since the survey was begun and have been unable to pass judg- 
ment on the report before its publication. Mrs. Peters also left for 
overseas service before the manuscript was ready for the press. The 
final editing (including the formulation of the conclusions) was 
therefore done by Miss Atwater, who has had immediate direction 
of the survey from the beginning. 

Katharine D. McCormick, 
(Mrs. Stanley McCormick) , 
Chairman, Department of Food Production and Home Economics^ 

Woman's Committee, Council of National Defense, 

January, 1919. 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS WITHOUT 

PROFIT. 

A SURVEY OF THEIR DEVELOPMENT WITH PARTICULAR REFER- 
ENCE TO THEIR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC EFFECT. 



GENERAL PUBPOSE OF THE SURVEY. 

As a result of the shortage of food, fuel, and labor occasioned by 
the great war, nearly all European countries have had recourse to 
agencies already in existence which had for their purpose the prepa- 
ration of food in bulk, or have established such agencies on a national 
scale. The oldest of these agencies were on a charitable or semi- 
philanthropic basis; some of the largest were cooperative; others 
were commercial. But all have undergone change to meet the present 
emergency. 

The. impression is prevalent that mass feeding of some kind, such 
as cooperative housekeeping, communal kitchens, or some modified 
form which will result from experimentation on a large scale, will be 
retained as a permanent institution after the war. It has been seen 
by social economists for the past century that the use of such agencies, 
by taking the kitchen out of the home, would affect not only the cost 
and quality of the food consumed, but also such questions as those of 
domestic labor, woman in industry, and would occasion accompany- 
ing changes in the economy of the household. 

Sporadic attempts to establish agencies for the preparation of food 
for home consumption have been made in the United States, but for 
the most part with no lasting success, save in the case of such cora- 
mercial enterprises as delicatessen shops. The attempts at coopera- 
tive housekeeping, of which a record was faithfully kept over a 'long 
period by Mrs. Mary Ilinman Abel, founder of the Xew England 
Kitchen, were chiefly interesting in the light they threw on the 
psychology of the American people. In a review of the history of 
the Montclair Cooperative Society, a cooperative venture which was 
brought to a close by the war, its president, Mr. Emerson P. Harris, 1 
called attention to the fact that two fundamental conditions to the 
success of cooperation almost never exist in the United States — cfti- 



1 Cooperation, the Hope of tue Consumer, by Emerson P. Hanris, Now York. 1918. 

7 



8 AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

ciency and perseverance on the part of the cooperators and efficient 
supervision and management. It remains to be seen whether the 
necessities of the present crisis will lessen our excessive individualism 
and socialize us to a point where Ave can live in more closely united 
communities. 

If agencies for communal cooking are introduced into the United 
States as a result of the necessity for conserving food and fuel, or 
of reducing cost, it will be of importance to know whether they should 
be considered as a valuable permanent addition to our national life. 
The way in which they should be established will depend somewhat 
upon the answer to this question. Such an answer can be given only 
after a study of different types of communal feeding. Inasmuch as 
the development of these types has differed in the various countries 
in which they have arisen or taken root after introduction from other 
countries, a brief descriptive and historical survey of these agencies 
has been undertaken in order to make a fair comparison of the 
methods used. 

This study will first consider the pre-war development of communal 
agencies for the preparation of food to be consumed in the home. 
Inasmuch as Great Britain has, as a Avar measure, established a sys- 
tem of national kitchens, unprecedented in success and development, 
the second part of the survey will consist of a study of the British 
national kitchens. The third part will undertake to present the situa- 
tion in the United States up to November, 1918. 



PRE-WAR EXPERIMENTS IN COMMUNAL FEEDING. 

Pre-war experiments in communal feeding lead back in two lines, 
one, that of cooperative effort, and the other, that of charitable relief. 

One form of cooperation which took its rise in the early nineteenth 
century has had a marvelous development from a small beginning. 
The direct line of the great English Cooperative Societies, among the 
largest purveyors of food in the world, leads back to Robert Owen 
(1771-1858), wealthy factory owner, social reformer, and Utopian 
dreamer. Owen opened a store in his model factory colony at New 
Lanark where the people could buy goods of the soundest quality 
at little more than cost price. In the later elaboration of his theories, 
he advocated colonies of about 1,200 persons each, who were to be fed 
from a public kitchen. Owen believed that this method of feeding 
families would go far toward solving many of the problems of 
women. His teaching of the necessity of conscious seeking after the 
welfare of the community, in contrast with the prevailing "laissez- 
faire" philosophy, his belief in self-supporting communities, and his 
vision of a new moral and industrial order have left an impress on 
all classes. 

Cooperative societies persisted in England from the time of Owen, 
with more or less success. Between 1828 and 1840 they reached some 
400 or 500. One of these societies had already been formed in Roch- 
dale, in Lancashire, before the Rochdale Equitable Pioneers, in 1844, 
furnished an administrative method. Appalling need combined 
with a great idealism in " the hungry forties" brought about the bril- 
liant invention of "dividends on purchases." When the increase in 
number of cooperative stores on the Rochdale plan brought into ex- 
istence the Cooperative Wholesale Societies, the venture was made 
into the field of prepared foods. In 1873 the " C. W. S." started the 
making of biscuits and sweets. To-day it owns cocoa and chocolate 
works, preserve, candied peel and pickle works, lard refineries, but- 
ter factories, bacon curing, dry-salting and spice-grinding plants, etc. 
The society has creameries in Ireland, tallow and oil factories in 
Australia, bacon factories in Denmark and Ireland, 3,386 acres of 
tea plantations in Ceylon, fruit farms in various parts of England, 
and great preserving establishments. It owns in the Spanish raisin 
district a packing house which employs 600 persons in picking, pack- 
105584°— 19 2 9 



10 AGENCIES FOK THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

ing and shipping fruit. It owns the largest flour mills in Great 
Britain. It is the largest single buyer of Canadian wheat, and ha3 
recently purchased 10,000 acres of wheat land in Saskatchewan. An 
authority on the subject makes the statement that the English Co- 
operative Wholesale is the largest food supply establishment in the 
world. 

All of the European countries had proved fertile ground for the 
growth of the cooperative movement before the outbreak of the great 
war. cooperative buying societies frequently developing some form of 
cooperative-feeding under the pressure of high prices. Impoverished 
Ireland between 1889 and 1911 formed 934 societies for butter mak- 
ing. Of Denmark, as of Ireland, it has been said that it owes its 
rebirth since its destructive war with Prussia in 1863-64 to agri- 
cultural cooperation. Danish cooperative dairies export butter to the 
most remote lands. In Sweden, the movement started among the in- 
dustrialists. Norway reports a cooperative bakery. A Christiania 
society runs 14 groceries and 3 dairies. 

Official Germany tried to discourage the spread of cooperative 
stores. It was a usual procedure in both Germany and Austria to 
give members of the stores the choice of retiring from, or expul- 
sion from, any senior military club to which they might belong. 1 
But in spite of this opposition, German cooperative societies have 
a membership of one-half that of England. According to a French 
report, 2 there were in Germany in 1917, 2,300 societies buying good.s 
at cost and expending 500,000,000 francs. Harris says s that the 
society at Hamburg gained 15,500 members during the year 1916-17. 
Among the other activities of this society are butcher shops, bakeries, 
and delicatessen shops. The Government has enlisted the assist- 
ance of these societies in the work of establishing public kitchens, 
which became a necessity in 1916. The question of collective feed- 
ing was raised directly in the budget committee of the Landtag of 
Prussia on November 21 and 23, 1916, and the president of the 
food office intimated that communal feeding might become obli- 
gatory. 4 

Austria was the last of the great European countries to develop 
cooperation. But in 1867, under the stress of the same crisis which 
led Dr. von Kiihn to inaugurate the Vienna Volkskuchen (see p. 17), 
the societies gained a foothold which they have never lost. The 
war has seen the formation of the great Victualling Union of War 

1 Hans Mflller in " The Cooperative Movement Abroad," International Cooperative Bul- 
letin, 1908, 

* Gilles Normand, La guerre, lc commerce franca is ct lea consommateura. Paris, 1017. 

3 Cooperation, the Hope of the Consumer. New York, V.MS, p. 2S0. 

4 Noel Amatidru, Les Cuisines collectives en Allemasjne, Uulletiu dc la So dole Scicutifique 
d'Hygiene Alimentaire, Vol. V, No. G, 1!U7, p. 359. 



AGENCIES FOR THE RALE OF COOKED FOODS. 11 

Workers, established in 1910, a vast cooperative society of the em- 
ployees of various industrial enterprises. 

The cooperative bakeries of Belgium have, had a unique develop- 
ment. Those started at Ghent in the eighties by Edouarde Anseele 
included among other activities an output of 110,000 loaves of bread 
a week. Brussels had a socieh' equally large. The dividends from 
these bakeries were used (o form a fund out of which have grown 
the Vooruit and the Maisons dn Peuple. During the great strikes 
which the workers of Belgium have conducted at various times, 
free loaves have been distributed from the cooperative bakeries to 
the unemployed. 1 The Maisons du Peuple, at the time when Ger- 
many overran Belgium, were recreational and educational centers 
with beautiful gardens. Functioning as clubhouses for the people, 
they provided moving pictures, dances and reading rooms, concerts 
and dramas. 

Fiance was the original home of cooperative production. In 
spite of the tragedy of the Commune, cooperative workshops had 
persisted, and in 1010 were reported as doing an annual business 
of $10,000,000. The statistical tables prepared by M. Charles Gide, a 
show that the French tendency in cooperative ventures, as con- 
tracted with those in Anglo-Saxon countries, has been toward de- 
centralization. One-third of the French societies are bakeries, and 
most of the stores sell only groceries. Since the beginning of the 
war the cooperatives of Paris, at the request of the Government, 
have taken over the frozen-meat trade. They have also reestablished 
the shops of the French-Swiss society, "Maggi, ;? where milk, but- 
ter, and eggs were sold, and have been keeping down the price of 
milk. 

Their development is discussed in a report of a special mis- 
sion sent to France by the British ministry of food: 3 

In numbers of French towns where there were no cooperative societies the 
Inhabitants, sometimes with the help of the municipality, have formed leagues 
to fight against exploitation by local dealers. Cooperative bakeries are beimj 
formed at the front. But communal preparation of food has not developed 
in France along the lines now familiar in England, Germany, Austria, and 
Italy. 

Now, even more than in peace time, the cooking of food is regarded in 
France as a line art. The sustenance afforded by good food well cooked is a 
fundamental fact of the war to which French men and women are keenly 
alive. The ministry's representatives found this to be the case particularly in 
the canteens used by industrial worker-;, which are very efficiently managed. 
The came establishment had attached to it a creche, and here mothers, while 
they worked, were able l<> leave their babies, whom they could visit at slated 

i "A Baker and What He Uakod," by Albert Saaniehsen. The Outlook, Dec. i.'7, VJi'd. 
* Lea Soci6t£e Cooperatives de Consummation, p. '■'>$. 

•National Food .Journal, N\,v. 14, 1 '. » 1 7 , p. 78. 



12 AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

hours. The men and women have their meals together and share their rest 
rooms. A popular feature in some canteens is a "heating-up" room, where 
wives who bring their husbands' meals can warm the food on hot plates, after 
the American style, and then stay and partake of the meal in company with 
their husbands in the communal dining room. The work performed by the can- 
teens in providing good fare amid comfortable surroundings is of particular 
merit by reason of the fact that the advances in the price of foodstuffs far 
outstrip the increases in wages. 

In spite, however, of this strong conservatism with reference to 
any change in the habits of the French family, recent reports are 
significant of approaching change along lines for which our study of 
French cooperative movements has prepared us. In a special cable 
appearing in the New 7 York Times on September 18, 1918, the writer 
says: 

The French belief In collectivism as a political economic faith is probably 
stronger to-day than ever, in view of the rampant profiteering by almost every 
class of retail trader since the war began. 

A cable to the same newspaper dated September 11, 1918, states 
that Finance Minister Klotz has announced that: 

The French Government would take vigorously in hand the question of stop- 
ping the artificial rise in the prices of all necessaries in the way of foodstuffs, 
which in the last few weeks has assumed little short of monstrous proportions. 
Taking the view that the only effective remedy will be to suppress the abusive 
profits of intermediaries, the Government has appointed an interministerial 
committee to study the best means of placing at the disposal of the population 
of the country, in best condition as to price and quality, necessaries in the way 
of foodstuffs, and more particularly measures which may be taken in this di- 
rection for the benefit of those engaged in public services, by the creation of 
cooperative agencies, canteens, and organizations for meals in common. 

Italy has been a fruitful field for all forms of cooperative so- 
cieties. The unique cooperative labor group, the "Societa di Lavoro," 
has been her contribution to the movement. The large cooperative 
union in Milan had sales in 1916 of almost 24,000,000 lire as against 
15,000,000 in 1915. The foundation of the war restaurants of Man- 
tua, Florence, Milan, Koine, Bologna, Turin, and other Italian cities 
was often the restaurants that had existed in the cooperative soci- 
eties' stores. 

When we turn to the annals of cooperative movements in America 
to find a possible background for the development of communal feed- 
ing, we find that this country has been the grave of such ventures, 
from such great adventures as the colony of Owen at New Harmony, 
Ind., and the romantic Brook Farm experiment, down to the hum- 
blest and most practical attempt at cooperative housekeeping. There 
are scattered across the continent to-day some hundreds of isolated 
cooperative stores. But the isolation which has fostered the over- 
individuation of Americans has prevented the growth of groups with 
the true spirit of cooperation, the element which has hitherto been 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 13 

lacking. Whether the present crisis will force into our hands a tool 
as perfected as is the Rochdale plan of cooperation, remains to be 
seen. It is worth remembering, however, that in none of the coun- 
tries where such cooperative societies have proved generally suc- 
cessfu] have thev had commercial competitors organized as are the 
so-called "chain stores" and large mail-order houses of the United 
States. 

We have thus far dealt with a medium for production and distri- 
bution of food which was worked by the private initiative of thrifty 
and farsighted members of society, who needed no instruction from 
members of another social class in the principles of " self-help." But 
in every social group arc to be found the careless, the thriftless, and 
improvident, as well as those who through misfortune must be 
helped by others. In old and densely populated communities agen- 
cies have been developed to care for these groups as well as to pro- 
vide for the feeding of large numbers in times of famine, war, and 
epidemics. Inseparably connected with the problems of mass feed- 
ing raised by such classes and conditions is the name of Benjamin 
Thompson, Count Rumford, British-American scientist, adminis- 
trator, and philanthropist. 

At the close of the eighteenth century, a period when there was in 
existence only the scanty body of facts that made up the beginning 
of chemistry, physiology, and physics, Count Rumford brought to 
the choice and preparation of food on a large scale the insight and 
methods of the scientist. During the 11 years spent by him in Ba- 
varia on the invitation of Prince Maximilian, he improved the food 
of the Bavarian Army without materially increasing its cost. In 
an effort to solve the food problem of the poor, he caused no fewer 
than 2.000 beggars of Munich to be arrested by military patrols and 
transferred to an industrial establishment called the House of In- 
dustry. Here they were fed, not with the ordinary food of the 
country, but with a nutritious soup with dried peas and barley as the 
basis. Already interested in the problem of heat, he studied the 
effect of water at different temperatures on the ingredients of his 
new food. Stoves were constructed for economy in the use of fuel. 
As a result of his inventions, it was found that 1,000 portions of 
soup in summer and 1,200 in winter could be cooked and served with 
bread at a cost of one-third of a farthing a portion. Kitchens of 
this same type were established in Dublin and Ireland. The soup 
served in them is still the main food of inmates of Houses of In- 
dustry on the Continent. No real advance on the foundation laid 
by Count Rumford was made in later efforts to improve the food of 
the p<>oi' until our own time. 

It has been said of Count Rumford that, being a scientific man. he 
put nutrition too far above attractiveness; and that it may have been 



14 AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

from his efforts that the tradition arose that " cheap food is nasty." 
It is probable, however, that the surroundings and associations under 
which the food was served had much to do with the tradition. How- 
ever this may be, there is no doubt that the prejudices of many kinds 
which cluster about communal feeding have been serious impedi- 
ments to the success of these ventures. Perhaps when the psychology 
of nutrition is better understood, we shall be able to cope with these 
hindrances with greater intelligence. But in spite of tradition, it is 
of interest to note that when the exigencies of war compelled Ger- 
many to try the experiment of cost-price public kitchens and aided 
workpeople's kitchens, Munich and Bavaria led the way. By No- 
vember, 1016, Munich was giving a course of instruction in the man- 
agement of these kitchens. 

There have been several noteworthy experiments in cheap catering 
in the various European countries since the middle of the nineteenth 
century. They have combined the discoveries of Count Rumford 
and his successors with the various developments of the cooperative 
movement, and have adapted them to meet the conditions of the 
countries and classes with whom they were dealing. Some of the 
most noteworthy will be briefly described. 

The first " people's kitchen " opened in Germany with the avowed 
purpose of complete freedom from any eleemosynary taint, while at 
the same time it was to be kept free from the clutches of the profiteer, 
was organized by the Hiilfs-Verein of Leipzig in 1819. It was a 
part of the effort of public spirited persons of different professions 
to cope with the misery which threatened the professional as well as 
the working classes as the result of business depression. The kitchen 
was placed under careful direction and oversight, and all labor was 
paid. Staples were purchased in quantity and sold at cost to the 
members of the Verein. The success of this venture was proved by 
the fact that during its first year no less than 122,000 sales were 
made, and in the 22 years following there was a yearly average of 
177,5€S sales. Another kitchen of the same character was opened 
in 1871 in another part of Leipzig, whose sales annually exceeded 
400,000. Vienna, Zurich, Hanover, Berlin, Halle, Monaco, Grata, 
London, Eilenberg, and Bradford later opened kitchens on the model 
of the original at Leipzig. 

During the mid-century period of economic distress which affected 
all Europe, a kitchen was opened in Geneva under different auspices. 
A group of GO workingmen, with a social capital of only GO francs, 
secured rent-free quarters from the municipality in which they estab- 
lished a common table and served wholesome, nutritious food at 
minimum cost. This Swiss organization continued for several years 
with great usefulness to its members, but finally passed out of exist- 
ence. An observer and well-wisher thought the failure of such a 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 15 

worthy venture was the result of the lack of a solid basis of direction 
and oversight. Hut the experiment Lasted long enough for many 
observers to see the advantage of the preparation of food in quantity, 
to be sold lo members at cost. A member of the faculty of the uni- 
versity at Grenoble, Franco, doubtless familiar with the Geneva 
experiment, established in 1850 a similar association with S00 mem- 
ber-. The Grenoble city council, as at Geneva, stood back of the 
experiment, but was only to aid in case of a deficit. The venture 
seems to have proven successful, as no such contingency arose. 

The organizations at Leipzig, Geneva, and Grenoble, as well as the 
earlier English experiments, were chiefly concerned with the eco- 
nomics of the food problem. In June, 18G0, Mr. Thomas Corbett, 
of Glasgow, in a study of " The Kitchen of the Poor," lamented that 
the food question, much studied from the standpoint of price and of 
the prevention of pauperism, could not be approached from the 
standpoint of some of the other equally acute problems of the self- 
respecting working classes. He instanced the possibility of a con- 
nection between the effect of badly-prepared, unsatisfying food and 
the increase of intemperance. As a result of this careful study, the 
firs! •'economic kitchen*' was established in Glasgow. The purpose 
of this kitchen was to give the self-respecting worker attractive food 
at a reasonable price. Everything possible was done to prevent the 
venture being looked upon as a philanthrophy or charity. It was 
started by fixing the price of every portion at a penny, to continue 
if this proved a " paying proposition." The first kitchen was opened 
in September, 1860. Its success was so great that another was 
almo>t immediately opened. As a result of the success of the Glas- 
gow kitchens, Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, and other indus- 
trial cities made ventures along the same line. 

The founder of the Italian " Cucini popolari" in the exact sense 
of the term was Signor Cav. Bigotti, of Modena. In the winter of 
1870-80, one of great distress among the poor, Signor Bigotti with the 
assistance of a committee of fellow citizens opened a kitchen. Al- 
though its original purpose was to aid the very needy, the work was 
extended to include the better working classes. It is a significant 
fact that when this organization is compared with the "penny 
kitchens" of Glasgow, we find that the founders of the Italian enter- 
prise do not have to guard against the "touchiness" in the workmen 
as do all interested in English and Scotch ventures. The Italian 
founders advocate private control as " introducing a moral element 
not possible with an impersonal organization," and say that "per- 
sonal cooperation between the giver and receiver gives the best, re- 
sults. " While this is accepted in principle by all the followers of 
Saint-Simon as a means for the prevention of class conflict, in prac- 



16 AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

tice it has often been found, at least among Anglo-Saxons, that the 
relation of giver and receiver is hard to maintain without friction. 1 

The peoples' kitchens of Vienna are said to be the most important 
of their kind in Europe, not excepting the Volkskiichen of Berlin, 
which are a few years older. In each case the origin can be traced 
to the initiative of a single person, Dr. Joseph von Kiilm in Vienna 
and Fran Lina Morgenstern in Berlin. 

The plan of organization of the Volkskiichen of Austria and Ger- 
many is much the same. There is a central committee made up of 
public-spirited men and women serving without pay. This commit- 
tee manages all the finances, and is a court of last appeal. Each 
kitchen has its own committee, the chairman being a member of the 
central committee. The local committee manages the business of 
its kitchen, keeps the books, etc., and reports at stated intervals to 
the central committee. In each case the kitchens are capitalized by 
contributions from philanthropic persons, and it is expected that 
all the work of the committee shall be unrecompensed. The original 
contribution to the Berlin kitchen, 4,359 thalers (about $3,000), had 
grown by profits and gifts to 95,000 marks in 1890. No interest is 
paid on this fund, nor on several other funds used to pension em- 
ployees, etc. All superintendence is unpaid. Aside from these 
forms of indirect assistance, the sale of the food is expected to sup- 
port the kitchens. The purchase or rent of a building, the laying in 
of stock, and the wages of the paid help, are the necessary expenses. 
Frau Morgenstern in one of her reports says that ladies in Berlin 
were eager to serve as waitresses, for the Volkskiichen were the first 
outside activity permitted to women of the better classes in many 
communities of the Teutonic countries. The plans for opening a 
kitchen are carefully worked out to the last detail, and printed, so 
that, to quote Frau Morgenstern, " the failure of a kitchen means 
either bad management or the lack of need of the kitchen in that 
locality." Even the recipes for a kitchen such as the one in Berlin 
may be obtained for a few pfennigs. But with all the minute 
Teutonic care with which details have been worked out (directions 
even being given as to provision for the cook's children, if she has 
any), these kitchens do not run themselves. 

Their founder, looking back over 25 years of service, comments : 

In order to be successful, they demand devotion, a great deal of personal 
supervision, and initiative on the part of the organizers. They require practi- 
cal understanding, good business management, with a knowledge of proper 
location. And above all, they demand tact, insight, and a love of humanity. 

iMueh of the information given above concerning the early "peoples' kitchens" was 
obtained from a study made by Trof. L. Taglianl, and presented in 18S3 at the Confcrenza 
pubblica popolari della sede l'iemontese della societa Italiana d'igicne. 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 17 

Special interest attaches to the work in Vienna owing to the fact 
that it was from the first, self-supporting. It started on humble 
lines. The great success it achieved was due to skillful organization, 
careful management, and infinite taking of pains. 

After (he Austro-Prussian war, when many members of the work- 
ing class starved to death in Austria, Dr. von Kiihn gave up his post 
as a state official to study measures to lessen the evil. He began by 
a study of the provision trade. As a result of this study, he became 
impressed, as had the great German economist Schulze-Delitsch in 
1848, with the exorbitant profits of those who sell to the poor. Dr. 
von Kiihn interested four friends in his plan, and with them organ- 
ized an executive committee. One was secretary, another treasurer, 
while Dr. von Kiihn became chairman. Each subscribed 1,000 
kronen. With this sum (about $1,000) they started a Volkskuche 
in a section of Vienna where poverty was rife. Its success was so 
great that in 1872, Dr. von Kiihn gave up all other work and devoted 
all his time and energy up to his death in 1913 to controlling and di- 
recting the work of the Volkskuchen. He bought the provisions, 
engaged the servants, and decided what should be cooked and how. 
He was always in the kitchens when dinner was being served, tasting 
every dish before it was served, and watching those who ate the dishes 
to see which they liked best. When the Volkskuchen began to sell 
food for home consumption, they became more popular than ever. 

The Vienna Volkskuchen, one of which was in operation in every 
district of the city in 1914, are worked on business principles. Pa- 
trons go as to an ordinary store or restaurant and pay for what they 
buy what it costs. As the question of what constitutes a " cost price n 
is still a mooted one in all these ventures, it is of interest to know 
what was included in this successful kitchen. The original cost of the 
ingredients, the cost of preparation and cooking, a carefully calcu- 
lated proportion of the cost of lighting, heating, and the general 
upkeep of the kitchens, were considered. Whenever it was found 
that there was a profit, the price of the food sold was reduced. 
Another great difference from the ordinary commercial venture is 
that no interest was paid on the original investment made by Dr. 
von Kiihn and his friends. The working expenses were further 
lowered by the fact that much was clone by the "honorary officials," 
as in the peoples' kitchens in Germany, where the work has been a 
part of the accepted charity work of every society woman, much as 
Red Cross work is in war time. Soon after the opening of the first 
kitchen. Dr. von Kiihn persuaded a friend to become lady superin- 
tendent. It was her business to watch over the matron, the cook, and 
other servants, and to play hostess to all comers. Committees of 
10.-j5S4°— 19 3 



18 ACxEXCIES FOE TTTE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

ladies wore formed to act as waitresses in the kitchens. Far years all 

the waiting in the kitchens was done by ladies. 

The Vienna kitchens were at first open only from 11.30 a. m. to 
2 p. m. A 3-penny dinner was served, which consisted of a slice of 
beef, mutton, pork, or veal, with a large dish of vegetables. He who 
had only a penny could have soup, vegetables, or a dish of savory 
rice with bread. A woman familiar with the restaurants of England 
states that in 1911 a better dinner could be bought in Vienna for a 
fraction over 5d. than in any English restaurant for 10d., with (he 
exception of the Alexandra Trust Dining Rooms. (See below.) 

In the 15 kitchens of Vienna in 1911 there were 2,756 seats, and 
each scat could be filled eight times during the dinner hours. Thus 
22,048 men and women could have their dinners there, in addition to 
the thousands who bought dinners they took home. In the case of 
every successful kitchen of this type studied by the writer, it has 
been found necessary to give the two kinds of service. The Berlin 
kitchens started with the avowed intention of serving no meals on the 
premises. But from the first there were deserving patrons who pled 
to l>e permitted to eat in the chimney corner, so that more or less 
reluctantly this service, was provided. One reason for this is the 
difficulty in keeping the food hot. Patrons are usually expected to 
provide their own receivers, which makes another difficulty for those 
who stop on the way to and from their working places. 

Prior to 1911 the enterprises in England mast closely resembling 
the German and Austrian Volkskiichen were the Alexandra Trust 
Dining Rooms in London. These were directly inspired by the Vien- 
nese Volkskiichen. The fare is more varied than in many people's 
kitchens and less suggestive of Rumford's soup kitchens. On one 
dinner menu were found the following items: Clear soup, vegetable 
soup, beef venison with macaroni, pork cutlets with salad, spinach, 
peas, fruit pudding, and ginger pudding. But the initial expenses 
were much heavier than those of their Austrian or German proto- 
types. It was estimated in 1911 that to start such a kitchen in 
England would require a capital of from $2,000 to $2,500. 

The peoples' kitchens have been utilized as a partial solution of the 
problem of feeding school children, a duty which is coming to the 
fore in every country. In 1911 the Vienna kitchens provided dinners 
for 5,120 school children at a charge just under a penny for soup, or 
milk pudding, or vegetables, served with a large roll. The Alex- 
andra Trust Dining Rooms send out 15,000 meals for school children 
on school days in addition to the 4,000 meals served to other clients 
from day to day. A child is charged less than half the price charged 
an adult. In spite of this the plan has for years been self-supporting. 
It is of interest to Americans to note in this connection that a ven- 
ture of this type, the New England Kitchen of Boston, was launched 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 19 

in 1S00 by two women who were close students of the European 
kitchens, Mrs. Mary Hinman Abel and Mrs. Ellen IT. Richards. The 
original New England Kitchen was put on its feet financially in two 
years chiefly by its proximity to an educational institution, to which 
for the first three years of its existence the kitchen served 300 lunches 
daily at a cost of 15 cents per person. It is said that the school 
luncheons served by the New England Kitchen were " the first Amer- 
ican effort to deal in a scientific way with the nourishment of school 
children." 1 

The Peoples' Kitchens Associations are the great emergency caterers 
for Austria and Germany. The Vienna Association has an engage- 
ment with the State under which it it responsible for the feeding 
of 10,000 persons at 21 hours' notice. The equipment of an emer- 
gency kitchen is kept ready packed in a large van, the food needed is 
sent direct from the central kitchen in air-tight cans in which food 
will retain its heat for 21 hours. Both the lied Cross and the war 
office draw on the kitchens. The German Volkskiichen, with head- 
quarters in Berlin, are similarly organized. Almost immediately 
after their founding in 1866, they were called upon to test their or- 
ganization through the great outbreak of cholera. Then came the 
Franco-Prussian War, in which their service was so great as to estab- 
lish them firmly as an institution. 

From the scanty information to be gathered as to the develop- 
ment of the Volkskiichen in Germany and Austria under the stress of 
the great war, it would seem that they show greater differences than 
in their earlier evolution. The taint of the philanthropic " soup 
kitchen" seems to have affected the kitchens of Germany more than 
those of Austria. The German kitchens had a more direct descent from 
the Rumford kitchens, and seem never to have catered to individual 
taste by a varied menu as did the kitchens founded by Dr. von Kiihn. 
Consultation of the booklet of directions for the opening of a kitchen 
on the Berlin model shows a paucity of recipes and of cooking 
utensils. 

The cooperative ventures, on the other hand, seem to have gained 
marvelously from the war, as shown by statistics. The new ventures 
in Germany in cost-price kitchens and aided workpeoples' kitchens 
are aided by the State and municipalities. In many cases town coun- 
cils provide capital, equipment, and even grants. The Biirger- 
Zeitung of Bremen made the statement in June, 1916, that the 
kitchens of Hamburg were receiving 101,000 marks a month from 
the war fund. But either from their ancient reputation, or from 
other causes, it is reported that the workers are not attracted by the 
kitchens, and go only as a last resort. It is said that in Hamburg the 

1 The Food of Working Women in Boston, Women's Educational and Industrial Union, 
Boston, 1917. 



20 AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

manageress is assisted in maintaining order by trades-union repre- 
sentatives, which gives some insight into the complication involved 
in the maintenance of the system. In all the German war kitchens, 
with very few exceptions, the food may be eaten on the premises 
or taken home. The most popular ones seem to be those established 
by the large munition works for their own employees, which are run in 
much the same way as those in France (see p. 12) . In many cases the 
families of the workers are permitted to eat at these kitchens. But 
all German reports agree that municipal feeding has no future in 
Germany. 1 

The Austrian tradition concerning " soup kitchens " seems to have 
been less binding, or their inauguration as a war measure was under 
happier auspices. In May, 1917, a central office for the supply of 
foodstuffs was created, and an association of war kitchens was 
formed to deal with the central office. The group system, similar to 
the older experiments at Geneva and Grenoble, has been utilized. 
Middle-class kitchens have been kept distinct from those run on 
philanthropic lines; there have been public kitchens patronized by 
groups of people — not only employees in the same business, but pro- 
fessionals, such as university teachers and actors. The older form 
of the Volkskuehen persists, but is kept strictly apart in administra- 
tion from the middle-class kitchens. Nevertheless this group system 
is said to have aroused bitter comment. Certain sets or cliques have 
been favored, and if one does not " belong to " something for public 
feeding, or for supply of foodstuffs at home, one is out in the cold 
and stands in queues. But in spite of these administrative evils, it is 
clearly to be seen that the group system has many advantages. It 
does not entail so much of " psychic shock " in the change of food 
habits, which is apt to have serious effects with older persons. More 
than this, there are group likes and dislikes in food, as well as racial 
differences, and it is easier for a kitchen to cater to the tastes of one 
class only. 

The experiments at communal feeding, mass feeding, or of provid- 
ing food in bulk, which we have considered so far, have all been 
concerned with the complete elimination of profit. As we have seen, 
it is difficult in all undertakings which aim to be other than chari- 
ties, to define what shall be legitimately included in "cost price." 
Many of these ventures, including the Volkskuehen, eliminate cer- 
tain legitimate costs, such as return on capital invested, so that they 
arc technically charities, although perhaps no more so than our 
great educational institutions. Frau Morgenstern acutely observes 
in the "History of the Volkskiichen " that these institutions give 

" Cotnmunal Kitchens In European Countries, by Aniee L. Whitney, Monthly Review of 
the Bureau of Labor Statistics, June, 1018; see also article on Administrative Methods 
in Other Countries, National Food Journal, vol. 1, No. 15, Apr. 10, 191S, pp. 393, U94. 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 21 

back their interest to the state in the prevention of epidemics aris- 
ing from malnutrition. But there have been ventures in the prepara- 
tion of wholesome food at a reduced price which have paid their 
way in the commerical sense. Among these are the Christiania 
Steam Kitchen, started in 1857. and to-day as thriving as some of 
the great English cooperative stores, and the Kvindernes Kokken of 
Copenhagen, a shop-girls' restaurant. These two undertakings are 
neither cooperative nor philanthropic, but are commercial agencies. 
though of an unusual type. 1 

The Christiania Steam Kitchen was si ailed in 1S5T by a group of 
business men — merchants, an official, a lawyer, and the chief of po- 
lice — who were anxious to help the luckless, but wise enough to 
know that they could help by taking thought, and not by lavishing 
money. Believing that they could best help by providing wholesome 
food at the lowest price at which it could be sold and keep the place 
of sale absolutely self-supporting, they started a stock company 
with a working capital of 3,483 pounds, and opened the steam 
kitchen. They enacted that not more than 6 per cent interest should 
be paid on the capital invested. They built the kitchen in the middle 
of the town, and installed an expert cook. The purchasing was done 
by the members of the company. 

Although the place proved popular, it ran with a deficit until 
I860, when an attempt was made to attract middle-class custom by 
opening a department in which uncooked food was sold. This 
proved such a success that the price of cooked provisions could be 
reduced without incurring a loss. The kitchen was twice enlarged, 
and has now been rebuilt. It is a huge place, with a paid general 
manager, a paid manager for each department, and other paid 
officials, all of whom are under the direction of a board of directors 
chosen by the shareholders. In 1914 working expenses were only 
8.7 per cent of the turnover. Fifteen hundred men and women ate 
dinner there every day ; 100 more bought in the cooked food depart- 
ment dinners to be eaten at home. 

The Kvindernes Kokken of Copenhagen, a shopgirls' restaurant 
which serves meals daily to from 1,200 to 1,800 women beside those 
who buy their food and take it home, is also a business undertaking, 
not a charity. It was planned entirely, and in 1914 was still di- 
rected, by two lower middle class women Avho had thoughtfully 
watched the failure of a philanthropic venture started with the 
same purpose. They took over the plant as a going concern, and 
paid for its fittings by installments. They emplo}'ed as cooks 
highly trained experts in their craft. Their assistants are appren- 

* Article by Edith Sc 11. rs in The 19th Century and After. 76, No. 453 (November, 1914) ; 
also Inexpensive Restaurants, by Helen W. Atwater, Journal of Home Economics, vol. 
VIII, No. U (June, 1916). 



22 AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

ticcs who go to the Kokken as to a technical school, receiving no 
wages. The waitresses are daughters of pastors, teachers, and offi- 
cials. The rooms are. carefully and tastefully furnished. In each 
dressing room there is an official, chosen for kindliness. In such 
ways is the tone of the establishment maintained. 

The Kokken opens at 9 a. m. The place is crowded between 11 
and 1, and again between 5 and 6. No man is admitted except as 
the guest of a woman. There is a choice between a la carte serv- 
ice and a regular dinner, which consists of two courses, good in 
quality and unlimited in quantity. In 191-1 such a dinner as veal 
with new potatoes and an excellent sauce, bread, apricots, and milk 
cost 14 cents. For 4 cents more soup was added, and a cup of 
coffee for 2J cents. 

Both of these ventures in low-priced catering have probably been 
affected by the war, which has very seriously altered the cost of 
living in the Scandinavian countries. 

The first public kitchens in Denmark, as might be expected, were 
not charitable in any sense of the word. Both Denmark and Sweden 
are said to prefer the delivery of cooked food at home to service in 
restaurants. 

Such a survey as has been undertaken in these pages makes it 
evident that the idea of mass feeding and of the preparation of 
wholesome food for consumption in the home at a reduced price 
was not new in Europe in 1914. The machinery of such ventures 
had been worked out, and a study of cheap and nutritious foods 
had been made. Social workers had repeatedly urged their adoption 
as a solution of other problems than those, purely economic. The 
accelerated absorption of women into the war industries merely 
intensified a condition to which economists and sociologists had 
been calling attention for half a century, a condition which was 
already apparent to thinkers at the beginning of the nineteenth 
century, but whose amelioration was to wait for slower processes 
of adjustment than those advocated by Fourier and Owen. 

Opposition to the more ambitious schemes for the preparation of 
food in bulk has usually included some statement that a definite 
movement of this nature would accelerate the decay of family life. 
This is a serious charge, if true. Sociological research lias made 
it clear that the component group we call the family is " the cradle, 
of our social ideals and the natural environment for the child, and 
that a normal family life is at the basis of social life in generaL" 
But the development of industrial life makes it increasingly evi- 
dent that it is to the need for woman in the life outside the home 
that we must look for the causation of the decay of family in- 
dustry, and that the weighing of the economic value of woman's 
work will finally be a deciding factor in the changes in family 



AGENCIES FOR TITE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 23 

life to meet the new order. If a radical change in the accepted 
way of insuring wholesome food to persons of scanty or moderate 
means should emerge from the present crisis, a change which would 
touch the most serious problems of poverty — the feeding of chil- 
dren, the nutrition of the mother, the care of the aged and orphans — 
it might carry with it a solution of other problems involving the 
happiness and unity of families. It may be that wife desertion, 
abandonment of children, crimes against property, even murder, are 
often traceable to scanty and poor food, a contributor to the misery 
of the poor. If the people's kitchens could be made to render more 
abundant and wholesome the nutrition of poor families, and at the 
same time lighten the load resting on the shoulders of the wife and 
mother, there is no doubt we should increase the mutual respect and 
a (lection of their members. And if it were not for the blow to the 
pride of the great middle class, as much might be said of it. It is a 
recognized fact among students of nutrition that it is not always 
lack of money which prevents the serving of wholesome food. Miss 
Sellers, an Englishwoman, ventures the statement that the man of the 
lower middle class in England is perhaps the poorest nourished, and 
Arnold Bennett has made plain the fallacy upon which English and 
Americans alike have traded, that housewives are " born " and need 
not be trained. It may be the beginning of a better day for others 
than the very poor when some agency other than an ignorant woman 
with no taste for cooking is left to cope with what is coming to be 
seen as a science — the choice and preparation of a balanced diet. Dr. 
Vernon Kellogg calls attention to the fact that one of the very in- 
teresting developments of the war has been the establishment of com- 
munal kitchens for the middle class which pay their own expenses 
and are recognized as of the greatest convenience to their patrons. 

But no rationalizing forces or philanthropic influences lie back of 
the present spread of communal kitchens in Europe. They are the 
outhgrowth of sheer necessity. All that philanthrophy or the social 
sciences can be said to have done was to prepare the minds of the 
people for them and to have worked out methods, such as the Volks- 
kiichen and the cooperating stores. The introduction of rationing, 
the difficulty of getting food and the annoying waiting in queues, 
and. to a less extent, the lack of fuel, were primary causes. Their 
success has depended upon the fact that one could get more value for 
the food card at the kitchen than one could get at home. Whenever 
the rations are generous, it is said that the attendance at the German 
kitchens falls off, in spite of facilities for the delivery of cooked 
meals. A picture of the situation in Austria is given in an article 
entitled "How the Viennese Live," written by Leonhard Adelt from 



24 AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

Vienna to the Berliner Tageblatt, and printed in the issue of July 9, 
1018: 

The supplying of Austria rests with state controlled economic' groups which 
regulate consumption and sales, and the Food Centrals, which, like the War 
Grain Exchanges establishment and the Fodder Central or like the Oezeg 
(Austrian Central Buying Association), and the Geos (vegetable and food 
supply establishment), are under the control of the imperial and royal office 
for the nation's food. * * * 

As in all the warring countries the economic and social clashes have become 
sharper in Austria. The piling up of wealth on the part of a small group is 
accompanied by the rapid loss of the middle classes and the helplessness of the 
lowest class as a result of the decreased purchasing power of money. For the 
benefit of the poorest class the Government some time ago established a credit 
for needy of more than $60,000,000. Meals and cheap war kitchens for the mid- 
dle class and the workers complete the State's aid. 1 

1 Selections from a translation of tbe article printed in the New York Times, Sunday, 
Sept. 1, 1918. 



THE NATIONAL KITCHENS OF GREAT BRTTATN. 

A chronological study of the preparation of the conservative Brit- 
ish middle class for the idea of communal cooking will be enlighten- 
ing to the American reader. Credit for the success of the plan rests 
with the food controller. Lord Rhondda, "one of the few great men 
the war discovered." 

Under Lord Rhondda's direction, a food economy campaign was 
inaugurated. Sir Arthur Yapp, national secretary of the Y. M. 
C. A., was appointed director of food economy in the ministry of 
food in September, 1917. It was announced that the campaign was 
to be directed not only to the serious situation confronting the 
nation at the moment, but to the situation after the Avar. The cam- 
paign was to utilize all existing machinery, churches and chapels, 
universities and schools, corporations, members of Parliament, 
women's societies, etc. In the same month the ministry of food began 
the publication of the National Food Journal, Avhose avowed purpose 
was k " informational and educational." In the first issue, September 
12, 1917, the vital necessity of food economy was shown to be not only 
temporary. Statistics were quoted as to the decrease in the world's 
meat producing animals. Economies could be effected by people 
eating less, b}? the elimination of waste, and by the use of all food- 
stuffs to the greatest nutritive advantage. The number contained 
this paragraph relative to the central kitchen movement, already 
under way: 

Attention has been given to the reduction of food consumption by teaching 
improved kitchen economy, as the waste due to ill-chosen and ill-prepared food 
among the M-age-earning section of the population has always been consider- 
able The most hopeful line of approach has boon found to consist in the es- 
tablishment of central or communal kitchens where cooked food is served and 
demonstrations are given showing how food can be prepared with the maxi- 
mum of nutrition and the minimum of waste. 

In the issue of the Journal for September 26, it was again pointed 
out that the danger of the food situation lay not so much in the sub- 
marine peril as in the world shortage of cereals, meats, and fats; 
and the high prices were ascribed to the fact that England was pay- 
ing for her important imported food stuffs more than double what 
she paid before the war. The Daily Telegraph was quoted: 

The fundamental fact of the food situation is that the supplies of most com- 
modities, not only in this country, but all the world over, fall below the usual 
10.j.-)81°— 19 4 25 



2G AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

production. This state of things would not be altered if peace were declared 
to-morrow, and will certainly exist for some time after the war has come to 
an end. 

To meet the situation, the unnecessary middle-man must be elimi- 
nated. Lord Rhondda recommended— always a strong point with 
him — the utilization of existing agencies under license and control, 
and under the supervision of local food controllers appointed by 
the local authorities. 

Before the inauguration of the food economy campaign the minis- 
try of food had been experimenting with central kitchens, later de- 
fined as " kitchens established to buy raw foodstuffs and to sell cooked 
foods with a view to conserving the foodstuffs of the country, 
especially its cereals, that is to say, its wheat and wheat substitutes.'" 
A model kitchen was opened on May 31, 1917, by the ministry in 
Westminster Bridge Road, London. Even before this date, local 
committees had been experimenting so widely that an Englishwoman, 
writing on the subject in June, prophesied that " nine out of ten will 
fail. The tenth may scramble through, more by good luck than good 
management." This critic believed in the principle of the kitchens, 
but not in the method of organization and control at first in vogue, 
when the kitchens were still " muddling through." She writes : " They 
can reopen later and be conducted under proper control with the 
valuable assistance of catering and domestic science departments, 
and with trained workers instead of amateurs." 

But not all the first trial kitchens were failures. Hammersmith, 
whose mayor was the first to subsidize the equipment of a public 
kitchen out of the rates, had a central kitchen in operation from 
March, 1917, and in February, 1918, reported 9 depots. Two kitchens 
opened in May in West Ham were so successful that three others 
Avere added with satisfactory results. Up to December, 1917, these 
five kitchens served nearly 50,000 meals to all classes of people, 
at an average of 5d. each. At these kitchens, the prices vary from a 
penny to six pence per portion. In addition to providing food to bo 
taken away by the people for consumption at home, the original in- 
tention of all the kitchens, there was such a demand for dining rooms 
in connection with the kitchen that two were built, one for each sex. 

On the basis of the experience of the ministry of food with ex- 
perimental kitchens and kitchens opened by local authorities, a 
memorandum was prepared in the autumn of 1917, defining the ob- 
jects for which it was intended that central kitchens should be estab- 
lished, and setting out methods of establishment and management. 1 

It is recommended as a general rule that central kitchens be estab- 
lished only for the prepartion and supply of cooked food to be con- 

»£Jatioual Food Journal, vol. 1, No. 0, Nov. 28, 1917. 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 27 

sumed off the premises; but it would sometimes be advisable, where 
there is a large and populous area to be served, to arrange in addi- 
tion for a number of distributing- depots. Kitchens were to be self- 
supporting as far as possible, They should be free from the element 
of charity and so conducted that any person might use them with 
self-respeet. 

By the close of 1917 it was apparent that assistance in the initial 
cost of equipment was necessary. In a speech delivered at the open- 
ing of the communal kitchen in North Woolwich Road, Silvertown, 
West Ham, Lord Rhondda said that "orders had been issued em- 
powering local authorities to establish and control kitchens, and 
grants would be made to the authorities which advanced the money." 
When the Marylebone Borough council decided in December, 1917, 
to establish and equip a central municipal kitchen for cooking and 
supplying food for the inhabitants of the borough, it was with the 
understanding that the Government would contribute 25 per cent of 
the cost, and advance by way of loan for the establishment of the 
kitchen another 25 per cent, free of interest. 1 

All vras not clear sailing for the ministry of food in its dealing 
with local boards. Some were too ambitious. Under date of No- 
vember 27, 1917, in the London Times there appeared the following: 

The St. Pancras food control committee has expressed the opinion to the 
ministry that if premises such as large restaurants, hotels, clubs, and public 
institutions were utilized for the cooking of meals, and if a suitable transport 
BCheme were arranged to convey the cooked food to municipal distributing cen- 
ters, public feeding on a large scale could be quickly organized without having 
t«> wait for new plant and adaptation of buildings. 

This attempt to start on the grand scale touched on what was to be 
one of the most puzzling questions, how to deal with local caterers. 
It took all the patience and tact of both Lord Rhondda and his able 
assistant and successor, Mr'. Clynes, to deal with this problem. In 
actual practice, it is probably true that much friction and waste 
could have been avoided if, in the framing of schemes, local commit- 
tees had taken account of the catering facilities in the area, had con- 
Mil led with the proprietors, and agreed upon a plan whereby all the 
establishments in the neighborhood could be brought together into 
one comprehensive system. That some attempts to placate local 
dealers were made is evident. The Marylebone Borough council, in 
the announcement of its plan for a kitchen, emphasized the state- 
ment that k ' there will not be any attempt to undersell local traders." 
The. founder of a chain of restaurants well known in London com- 
plained bitterly in the columns of the press that the national kitchens 
were "cruelly unjust to the existing caterer, who is responsible for 
Leaseholds and has the whole of his capital invested in his business." 

i London Times, Doc. 28, 1917, p. 3. 



28 AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

u The promoters of the national kitchens," he said, " have a prefer- 
ence in regard to marketing, and enjoy a priority in respect of staff, 
utensils, stoves, boilers, and other matters connected with output." 
As early as January, 1918, he had suggested to the ministry of food 
that they should take over the working-class restaurants. In his 
reply, Mr. Clynes has said, as he had said repeatedly in response to 
parliamentary inquiries on this subject: "Our object is to supple- 
ment the efforts of others, and to meet a very pressing war-time 
demand." 1 

In view of this a statement was later made in the press that the 
food controller had refused to establish national kitchens in com- 
munities where the borough is amply catered for with regard to the 
supply of cooked food at reasonable prices. The ministry was ready 
to consider a scheme whereby caterers could be supplied with raw 
materials and appliances on a reasonable basis. But if this were 
done they must limit their prices and their profits in the interests of 
the public. 2 

The experiments with central kitchens in 1917 had raised other 
objections. In spite of Lord Rhondda's statements as to the vital 
necessity of the kitchens, it was much discussed whether there was 
a real need for them. Both the food controller and the director of 
food economy repeatedly urged upon local committees the impor- 
tance of being prepared with the necessary arrangements for feeding 
masses of the people, should there be any serious breakdown of food 
supplies. But in their reports on the subject some local committees 
insisted that there was no poverty apparent in their boroughs ; that 
the food shortage was not sufficiently acute to make the kitchens an 
urgent and immediate necessity ; and that owing to the high rate of 
wages the high prices of commodities were not being felt as they 
would be in normal times. 

In spite of objectors, the success of the experimental kitchens and 
the food economy campaign had led by January, 1917, to the estab- 
lishment of communal kitchens at more than 60 centers, including 
Leeds, Manchester, Sheffield, Gloucester, Reading, Oxford, Ipswich, 
Chester, Dorking, Bailey, Halifax, Croyden. Broadstairs, Bourne- 
mouth, Cheltenham, Folkestone, Middlesbrough, Sunderland, Tor- 
quay, Welshpool, Watford, West Hartlepool, and in many of the 
London boroughs. But the need was too pressing to wait for local 
authorities to take the initiative. The propaganda for voluntary 
economy was discontinued. In January, 1918, Alderman C. F. 
Spencer, of Halifax, a successful business man, was asked by Lord 
Rhondda to come to the ministry of food and take up at once the 



i See further. National Food Journal, vol. 1, No. 21 (July 10, 1918), p. 575. 
a Municipal Journal, No. 1328 (July 12, 1018), p. 720. 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 29 

task of developing the branch of the department which dealt with 
communal kitchens. On February 1 Mr. Spencer gave particulars 
of his schemes for setting up kitchens in places outside of London, 
including the following: 1 

Transport of food. — Electric kitchens, oil the trams, in which the food would 
be kept hot ; and also to use gas-bag motors and traveling kitchens. His 
scheme will even provide for keeping warm small quantities of food bought by 
individuals * * *. The good will of the people was needed when it came 
to a change in the national habits of feeding the community. 

The advantage and utility of national kitchens lay in the fact that they 
would — 

(1) Secure economy in food and in use of fuel, considerably reduce waste of 
foods; secure economy In soap, towels, crockery, and other kitchen necessities. 

(2) Secure a reasonably adequate supply of food at comparatively low 
prices; place within the reach of the working classes wholesome food instead 
of "makeshift" meals; and obviate many of the difficulties of buying, with 
its attendant waiting and disappointment. 

(3) Release many women from the arduousness of domestic life, and perhaps 
enable some of them to take up war employment. 

(4) Free the shops of many customers whose demands are unorganized, thus 
creating distributing difficulties. 

(5) Afford equal opportunities for all classes to obtain nutritious food pre- 
pared on modern hygienic principles. 

(6) Afford opportunities for reducing the staffs of retailers, refreshment 
house proprietors, etc., and reduce consumption of paper, etc., used in parcel 
distributions; and allay discontent in munitions areas. 

(7) Individual cooking was waste of labor, health, material, and energy. 
A thousand homes with a thousand gas and coal fires resulted in a multiplicity 
of operations essentially wasteful. 

In the same interview, Mr. Spencer suggested that cooperative 
effort between the local authorities and eating house proprietors in 
large provincial towns might lead to a big s3 7 stem of " national res- 
taurants." (This forecast is interesting in view of the fact that the 
restaurant movement was still growing when the armistice was 
signed. See p. 42.) It Avas expected that in the new ventures which 
were to combine kitchen and restaurant, 25 per cent of the food 
cooked Avould be consumed on the premises and 75 per cent be taken 
away. It was hoped that the public would come to use the kitchens 
as they use municipal trams, gas, and electricity. 

The first public order concerning national kitchens was issued 
February 25, 1918. It had become evident that the food regulations 
resulted in hotels and restaurants reducing the quantity and quality 
of food given to their customers, but without any reduction in prices; 
in some instances prices were actually increased. 2 Seeing that this 
situation was likely to become an actual hardship the ministry of 

» London Times, Feb. 5, p. 0. 

'National Kitchens and Restaurants in England, by Phillip B. Kennedy, London, July 
19, Commerce Reports No. 185, Aug. 8, 1918. 



30 AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

food took the step to assist the public. This first order, " Defense of 
the realm act, 1918, No. 223," enabled the food controller to establish 
national kitchens. This was supplemented by local authorities food 
control order No. 2, 1918, of February 25, and statutory rules and 
orders of February 2G, 1918. Later, the ministry of food issued a 
booklet explaining to local authorities the procedure to be followed 
in establishing national kitchens. 1 

Under the new order, the number of kitchens has increased rapidly. 
In November, 1917, there were in existence 161 central kitchens; in 
March, 1918, 250, and in July, about 1,000 national kitchens. Only 
the three or four kitchens opened as experiments were under the di- 
rect management of the ministry. 

The original agreement between the local authorities and the minis- 
try of food with reference to the financing of the kitchens was, that 
25 per cent of the initial capital outlay would be given by the min- 
istry, 25 per cent lent, and 50 per cent was to be raised by the local 
authority, which was empowered by the local government board to 
charge to the rates any necessary expenses. But in response to repre- 
sentations for an alteration regarding this grant, the Treasury agreed 
in June, that instead of a grant of 25 per cent followed by a possible 
loan of 25 per cent, the imperial exchequer would grant a loan free of 
interest for the full amount of the approved capital outlay on the 
establishment of a kitchen, such loan to be repaid by the local au- 
thority by 10 annual installments, the amount to be secured by a stat- 
utory mortgage which the local authority would be authorized to 
give. 2 

In May, 1918, it was announced that a districting scheme had 
been formulated for the establishment of national kitchens, the dis- 
tricts to coincide with the areas of the Food Commissioners. A divi- 
sional director was to be held responsible for carrying out the national 
policy in each district. The kitchen at Poplar was to be taken as a 
model. 3 

Inasmuch as the Poplar kitchen has been one of the most successful 
of the British national kitchens, the description of it may prove of 
value. The Bow swimmings baths, Roman Road, Poplar, were taken 
for the purpose, and the most interesting of the innovations connected 
with it was that a restaurant was arranged at which food from the 
kitchen could be eaten. It will be remembered that the original pur- 
pose of the kitchens was to provide food to be eaten in the home. 
But it had been found necessary to provide for people who had to 

1 Handbook of National Kitchens and Restaurants, National Kitchen Division, Ministry 
of Food, London, 1918. 

- Municipal Journal, No. l.°,26, June 28, 1018, p. GS7. 
•London Times, May 29, 1918. 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 31 

eat at hotels and restaurants, on whom the food regulations had 
proved to be a particular hardship. 

The cooking in the Poplar kitchen is done by steam, for which ap- 
pliances were already installed, and by electricity. The electric 
cooking apparatus comprises a treble-oven electric range, a three- 
compartmenl baker's oven, a carving table and hot cupboard, several 
boiling plates, a couple of grills, etc. Four boilers, each with a 
capacity of 24 gallons, are available for preparing soups, stews, and 
stork. This kitchen is open 11:30 a. m. to 1.15 p. m. and 5 to s 
p. in. It began in March, 1918, to serve about 1,000 portions daily, 
but in May the portions had increased to :2,300. 

Not only have residents in this part of Poplar welcomed the opportunity of 
obtaining cheap, well-cooked meals, hut the employees of neighboring works, 
school teachers, ami others go to the kitchen for their midday meal, and a large 
number of Children call at the hatha for their dinner on their way home. In 
many cases women bring their dishes soon after the kitchen has opened, and, 
by setting dinners ready cooked, save fuel, money, and labor. 

The daily bill of fare is, generally, as follows: 

DINNER 11.30 A. M. TO 1.45 P. M. 

Soup Id. per half pint 

Fish pie 3d. 

Meat roll 4d. 

Roast beef or mutton, per portion 4d. or 6d. 

Greens 3d. 

Potatoes Id. 

Milk pudding lJd. 

Fig pudding lid. 

SUPPER 5 TO 8 P. M. 

Fish roll 3d. 

Shepherd's pie 4d. 

Cold roast beef 4d. 

Pickles |d. 

Stewed apples and custard 1U\. 

Suet pudding lid. 1 

This kitchen reported in May, that after provision had been made 
for cost of management, for estimated rental value, interest on re- 
demption of capital, renewal of plant and contingent liabilities, a 
profit could be made with the prices quoted above at the rate of from 
40 to 50 per cent per annum. With a system like this, waste can be 
avoided, a considerable saving effected in fuel and labor, and good 
nourishing food provided. Expenses are reduced at the Poplar 
kitchen by the system of service. Tickets for a meal arc bought at an 
office. In exchange for them the food is obtained at a long table and 
brought with knife and fork and spoon to the tables. Attendants 
clear the tables of the used plates, cups, and saucers (the cafeteria 

» London Times, Mar. 27, 1918, p. 8. 



32 AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

method). A penny extra is paid for restaurant service. Those who 
took the food home originally brought their own vessels and were 
charged the eating-house prices. More recently special containers 
have been supplied by some of the kitchens, for the use of which the 
patron makes a small deposit. 

The equipment of the national kitchens is constantly improving. 
Since they were begun, large firms have been working on the stand- 
ardization of the utensils, until now, any good trade journal has ad- 
vertisements for the equipment of these kitchens. The standard 
number of patrons is 1,000. The experience and advice of some of 
the pioneers in the work is interesting and valuable, to show the 
problems already solved, as well as those awaiting solution. One of 
the early successful kitchens was that at Reading, which was able to 
feed 5,000 children sent from London in the winter of 1917-18 to 
escape the air raids. 

Central kitchens for the provision of meals for necessitous school 
children had been established in Reading in 1907. Of the two central 
kitchens in existence, it was decided to use the principal as the first 
communal kitchen, which was opened September 3, 1917. It is sit- 
uated in a thickly populated district and is a part of a disused school 
building. 

A large room is divided into a kitchen, 25 by 20 feet, and a boiler 
room. In a room adjoining 200 children can be fed. There are 
packing and distributing rooms on the ground floor, and a large store 
on the upper floor. 

The original furnishing of the kitchen consisted of three steam 
coppers of 80, 60, and 55 gallons capacity, respectively. A gas stove 
was hired from the local gas company. A large teak sink for wash- 
ing up, and a white glazed sink for the preparation of vegetables, 

etc., were provided. 

List of utensil*. 

Approximate cost 
Description. (England, 1918). 

2 Lovelock mincers, No. 4 eaeh__ 34s. 

1 potato chipper 20s. 

1 bread machine 30s. 

1 weighing machine (to 4 hundredweight) £5 10s. 

2 pairs table scales 9s. 6d., 12s. 6d. 

1 set of measures per set— 5s. 

2 wrought iron stock pots with taps 28s., 36s. 

2 oval iron boilers each__ 8s. 

1 oval tin boiler 3s. 6d. 

1 fish kettle 6s. 

3 1-gallon tin cans each__ 2s. 

24 baking tins do Is. Od. 

4 skips or wash-ups do 3s. 6d. 

3 buckets do 2s. 3d. 

2 enamel colanders do 2s. 6d. 

1 meat saw and cleaver do 3s. 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 33 

Approximate cost 
Description. (England, 1918). 

2 sets of carvers and steel 16s. 

1 set of French cook's knives per set 10s. 6d. 

6 vegetable knives each 6d. 

1 flour scoop 2s. 

1 conical gravy strainer 2s. 

12 tinned iron and wooden spoons each 6d. 

12 stone jars (7-pound jam jars) do 6d. 

6 enameled Wins do Gs. 6d. 

3 mixing basins do 3s. 

G basins do Is. 3d. 

6 pit' dishes do Is. 9d. 

6 large meat dishes do 9s. 

This equipment was adequate for meals for 1,000 children, but 
inadequate for a communal kitchen designed to cater to the public. 
The following apparatus was therefore added: 

Description. Cost. 

1 Portway fuel roasting oven with pyrometer £32 18s. 4d. 

1 Wright's pudding steamer £31 2s. 6d. 

1 Welbank boilerette £1 10s. 

250 tinned Iron pudding basins per dozen 3s. 6d. to 5s. 6d. 

6 dozen basins or moulds do 2s. 

200 patty tins, 4$ apd 5 inches in diameter do Is. 3d. to Is. 6d. 

For this extra equipment, the borough council made a loan of £100, 
to be repaid from the income of the kitchen. 

Kitchen staff, wages, and duties. — 1. Female superintendent cook. 
Wages, £2 weekly and food. A woman with wide and long experi- 
ence in catering, responsible for the cooking and with complete con- 
trol of the staff. She carves and serves the roast and boiled joints 
of meat. 

2. Assistant cook, £1 weekly and food. Assists cook with pud- 
dings, pastries, etc., also with carving. 

3. Male assistant, 14s. 6d. weekly and food. .Assists cook with 
minor kitchen duties, weighing of meat, boiler work, cleaning of 
coppers and ovens, etc. 

4. Three women, each 15s. weekly and food. One prepares vege- 
tables and washes cooking vessels. Another packs and sends meals 
to centers for necessitous children and attends to general duties. The 
third waits upon the cooks and serves at the counter. 

5. Server (part time), 10s. weekly and dinner. Is at the kitchen 
3 to 4 hours daily. Assists in serving out portions. 

In addition, a female junior clerk from the education office acts 
as a cashier and sells tickets. No extra payment is made for this 
work, but an apportionment is shown in the financial returns. 

The supervision of the staff and work is entrusted to the meals 
superintendent of the education committee, who buys all the food. 
105584° -19 6 



34 AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

The hours of the staff are : Women, 8 a. m. to 5 p. m. daily ; man, 
C.30 a. m. to 5 p. m. daily. The kitchen is open to the public daily, 
Sunday excepted, from 11.30 a. m. to 2 p. m. 

Suitable printed notices of entrance and exit, instructions to the 
public that they must provide their own basins, plates, etc., are 
posted in conspicuous places. Copies of the day's bill of fare are ex- 
hibited outside the building and near the cash desk. On entering, 
the customer buys at the cash desk tickets to the value of the food 
desired. A separate ticket is given for each dish asked for, to aid 
in the record. The customer receives food at the counter in exchange 
for the vouchers, and leaves by a separate exit. 

The kitchen buys the tickets, priced and printed, in rolls, 6d. for 
500, 10|d. per 1,000. Each ticket is numbered. This numbered 
ticket system provides an easy method of checking the cashier's ticket 
account and cash. A typed form is filled in by the cashier each day, 
and has spaces and entries for each kind of ticket. The number of 
tickets used and the ticket numbers are also recorded, and each return 
supplies daily an accurate record of the number of portions sold, with 
the total amount of cash taken. 

Spartan economy is employed. Everything is weighed. A small 
stock board is kept constantly in use. The cost of each dish is very 
carefully calculated, and an allowance in the selling price is added 
of 33^ per cent to 40 per cent for capital, working, and other 
charges. A daily cash account is prepared. The expenditures are 
for wages, administration, rent and rates, insurance, fuel, cleaning, 
depreciation of plant and utensils, and actual cost of the food used. 

This kitchen can provide a good meal for from 6d. to 8d. The cost 
of the meal is the actual cost of the kitchen, 4d. each for dinners, and 
2d. for breakfast. It serves on the average 675 meals a day to all 
classes. At first the poor were the main purchasers, but the class of 
customers has steadily improved. An account is kept with the Read- 
ing education committee by which the kitchen feeds necessitous school 
children. 1 

The superintendent of another successful communal kitchen gives 
the following advice as to installation and equipment of a kitchen : 2 

The first move should be to get together a small committee of practical and 
willing workers. Suitable premises come next, centrally located in the quarter 
to be catered for and spacious enough for all culinary requirements. They 
should have the following minimum accommodations: (1) A lofty, well-lighted 
and well-ventilated room for cooking and selling; (2) a large storeroom, dry 
and well ventilated; (3) a spacious larder; (4) one or two dressing rooms for 
the staff. A good cellar would be a great addition, for the storage of potatoes 
and other vegetables. 

1 Municipal Journal, Jan. 11, 1918, pp. 36-41. 

a Local Government Cronicle, No. 2G76, Mar. 23, 1918, pp. 216, 217. 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 35 

Cooking room, storeroom, and larder should be fully equipped before work 
Is started. 

If gas is to be used for cooking, ventilation and also provision for the escape 
of steam must be well looked after. The use of the newest types of boilers 
and steamers makes this absolutely necessary. Economies might be effected 
by borrowing or hiring spare pots and pans from private-house proprietors. 
Cast-iron utensils, if carefully looked after, keep better in use than idleness. 
Any aluminum ware that is wanted should be bought outright. Enamel cooking 
pots should not be used in communal kitchens. The committee will have to 
decide the number, type, and size of the larger utensils, taking into account 
the number of customers expected. For the purchase of such articles it will 
be most economical in the long run to resort to the best and nearest firms. 
The latest types of boilers and steamers save time and labor every minute 
they are in use and pay for themselves in this way in a short time, while 
the older kinds are a perpetual source of worry. The staff should include these 
persons : 

Superintendent ; a reliable person with experience in cooking — a woman of 
good position who will have the entire management in her hands, subject to 
the control of the committee. 

An assistant superintendent, cook, and two kitchen maids, chosen with the 
help and approval of the superintendent. 

Volunteer helpers sell the food and help in rush hours ; those accustomed 
to the people, who live among them, and know their tastes and the value of 
food. One volunteer is responsible for the cash desk. She and her assistants 
give out tickets of different values for cash payments. The day's menu, wirh 
the price per portion, is posted on the entrance gate, with a duplicate on the 
rash desk. The food-sales women take over the tickets presented to them by 
the customers and place them on an upright file, which is beside each dish, 
with the name of the contents of the dish on a card. Before the seller leaves, 
she counts the number of portions she has sold and leaves it written on the 
file. The superintendent verifies the file records and posts them in the daybook. 
The food prepared for sale has already been entered. What remains unsold is 
counted. The cash desk furnishes her with the money taken in. She compares 
that with the food sold, and can see at once if there is a discrepancy. 

Two volunteer helpers come to the storeroom daily. One issues all stores 
asked for by the superintendent and keeps the record in a daybook. The 
second sees to renewing supplies, assists the other, etc. An accurately kept 
storeroom daybook is a necessity. 

< toe of the cooks assists the superintendent by taking charge of the petty- 
rash book. She records all daily supplies which come directly into the kitchen — 
fresh meat. milk, bread, etc. — and takes all correspondence off the hands of 
the superintendent. 

By the aid of the storeroom book, the petty-cash book, the record of the 
daily takings in cash, a weekly record of gas expenditure, liabilities for rent, 
rales, etc., a correct weekly account is furnished to the kitchen committee. 

The electric tram has been used in England not only to deliver 
meals, but for cooking in transit. Such a car was fitted up in April, 
1918, by the Halifax corporation tramways committee, whose chair- 
man is Alderman Spencer, the director of national kitchens. A 
single-deck tramcar was fitted with ovens and cookers and served 
with electricity from overhead wires. At one end of the car is a 
cash box where orders are taken and tickets issued. The food is 



36 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 



served from the sides of the car. It is prepared at the. central 
kitchen and cooked in the car. 

The Halifax tramcar kitchen, which is capable of supplying about 
800 portions, is equipped with an electric cooking plant; 2 baking 
or roasting ovens, 32 inches high by 22 inches wide by 21 inches deep, 
fitted with 6 racks spaced 5 inches apart; size of each rack 18£ by 
19| inches. Sheet metal on angle-iron framing is used. The load- 
ing is 16 kilowatts, divided into 4 sections, controlled by 4 quick- 
break rotary switches fitted on the oven framing. These are 24 
heating elements, 12 on each side, interchangeable and easily fitted. 
For steaming, there are 4 steam cooking ovens, each 16 by 16 by 24 
inches, with 4 shelves. There is a 25-gallon boiling pan. The ovens 
will cook 720 portions of pie in 2 batches, 600 fish cakes in 1 batch, 
360 milk puddings, or 108 pounds of bread. The 4 steam cooking 
ovens cook 1,152 dumplings in 2 batches, 160 pounds of potatoes 
(320 portions) , etc. The whole cooking space is 10 by 5 feet 9 inches 
by 5 feet 6 inches in height. 

The firm of manufacturing electrical engineers which made the 
appliances for the Halifax tramcar kitchen has placed on the market 
a complete equipment for an electrically-run kitchen. Their adver- 
tisements make the claim that electricity gives 10 per cent more 
weight cooked meat from the same weight of raw meat than any 
other method of cooking; it calls for no flues; there is no loss of 
heat ; and it is said to be the most hygienic method. The standard- 
ized equipment for 1,000 persons manufactured by this firm is made 
of the following items : 



Description. 



8 electric ovens, each 7£ cubic 
feet capacity. 



5 electric steamers, each 5J 
cubic feet capacity. 



2 30-gallon boilers, with lifting 

grids. 
2 30-gallon soup boilers 



1 10-gallon water boiling urn... 

1 hot cupboard with hot top.., 

1 boiler plate, with 3 burners 
and griller. 

3 solid-top hot plates , 



1 boiler (burning coal, coke, 
or refuse, with 70-gallon 
storage tank). 



Operation. 



Roasting and baking. 



Suet pudding, potatoes, and 
other vegetables, etc. 



For vegetables. 
For soups 



For tea making and sundry 
purposes. 

For plates and for keeping 
cooked food warm. 

For frying, grilling, toasting, 
making sauces, gravies, and 
other sundry work. 

For keeping trays of food, 
taken from ovens and steam- 
ers hot whilst being served. 

For supplying hot water to 
feed the electrical steamers, 
boilers, urns, etc., and for 
washing purposes. 



Cooking output (approximately). 



100. pounds of meat (per 3 hours); 54 
pounds of bread (each oven, per hour); 
360 portions of meat pies; 180 portions 
milk puddings (per hour); 300 flsh cakes 
(per hour). 

Each steamer, 80 pounds potatoes (per 
f hour); 245 dumplings (per f hour); 
250 portions suet roll (per J hour); 125 
meat puddings (per f hour). 

150 pounds of potatoes or similar vegeta- 
bles (each boiler). 

About 60 gallons of soup equals 640 J pint 
portions. 

Where supplied with hot water at about 
130 F. the capacity is about 320° £ pint 
portions per hour. 

500 plates iu one batch, or 250 plates, and 
40 to 50 dinners in dishes with suitable 
piling up covers. 

Griller will do 6 rounds of toast, 5 min- 
utes; 12 small chops or steaks (per i 
hour): a number of utensils can be kept 
simmering or boiling on the 3 burners. 

Simply for use adjoining the serving 
counter; arc very strong and will stand 
any weight. 

Output, 25 gallons boiling water per hour, 
or will raise 60 gallons of water to 130° 
F. in 1 hour. 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 37 

A great deal of careful thought was given to the equipment of the 
kitchen at Hammersmith, a large one, supplying about 6,000 cus- 
tomers a week, which probably represents 12,000 to 15,000 consumers. 

Two factors were deemed of great importance: First, a bill of fare which 
could be worked to with the least variety of appliances, thus limiting labor and 
cost while increasing possible output; second, the preparation and sale of foods 
that could be warmed up most successfully without spoiling * * *. The 
ovens are gas heated and brick lined; a type which is best for continuous, 
uniform cooking * * *. The kitchen being large, it was possible to intro- 
duce a steam-generating boiler for those cooking processes which can be done 
by steam, consequently the meat boilers are steam- jacketed, the pudding 
steamers are heated by a supply from the boiler, while the sink water is also 
heated by steam. Baking, as indicated, is done by gas-heated ovens which are 
known as pastry cooks' ovens. The vegetable boilers are gas heated, not steam, 
and this was due to the less first cost of the gas boiler.* 

The report just quoted also describes the equipment of the West- 
minster national kitchen, which is a gas kitchen. It offers a wide 
choice of cooked foods and has appliances similar to those found in a 
canteen or middle-class restaurant. 

A useful form of steam cooker is made of tinned sheet steel, really a simple 
sheet-metal cupboard, about 20 by 20 by 24 inches or larger, with perforated 
shelves. The special detail is the bottom, which is formed of an open water 
pan holding sufficient water for one steaming. Under this bottom a gas ring 
is set to boil the water. The door must fit well. An aperture at top, usually 
one-half inch in diameter, lets the steam escape and prevents undue pressure. 
The steam escapes into the kitchen or may be led away through a pipe. 
Nothing could be simpler or less expensive to make, and it is quite safe, because 
steam under pressure is never required for this work. 

Another necessary appliance is the hot closet, which may be made of black 
sheet-iron plates riveted on angle-iron framing or similarly stiffened. Hot 
closets are obtainable from the regular manufacturers, but these are usually 
of cast plates, and the top is sometimes heated independently to serve as a hot 
table and to provide accommodation for a bain-marie pan and carving dishes. 
Where, however, low cost is of importance the simple black sheet-iron cupboard 
is found sufficient. A useful size would be 6 feet wide, 2 feet 6 inches high, 
2 feet front to back. If the top is required to be stiff enough to serve as a 
warm counter or table simple means of staying can be devised. The heating 
of a hot closet can be readily done by a few No. 2 luminous gas burners. Ten 
or twelve to a 6-foot closet suffice, for a fairly low temperature is all that is 
required. 

Another form of appliance, sometimes partly sunk into the counter, sometimes 
independent, is the soup and vegetable warming tins. These need no covers if 
a quick service is expected. The vessels are of tin, about 20 by 14 inches by 
12 inches high, quite plain inside, but arranged with a suitable middle rim or 
projection outside, so that the lower half, or thereabouts, drops and rests in a 
pan of hot water. 

When we turn to a study of the menus of the British kitchens, it 
becomes clear that their problems of organization and equipment are 

» The Ironmonger, Mar. 9, 1918 ; quoted in Commerce Reports, Apr. 15, 1918. 



38 AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

vastly different from those of the kitchens on the continent, most of 
which keep to a menu of broth, stew, or soup, which simplifies the 
whole process of preparing, cooking, transporting, serving, and ap- 
portioning the food. Little other equipment is needed at such cen- 
tral kitchens than mincing or chopping machines and boilers propor- 
tioned in number and size to the public for whom provision is made; 
and these proportions have long since been carefully worked out and 
standardized by the Volkskiichen. For transportation, large cans or 
vessels are easily obtainable, and a dipper is about all that is neces- 
sary at the distributing center. Where ordinary care is used the food 
will require no reheating, and there is no problem of loss of weight 
or nutriment. The same conditions hold true of the Italian kitchens. 
Mr. J. E. Ham, American consul at Turin, in a report to the State 
Department on the first communal kitchen in Eome, opened Decem- 
ber, 1917, gives the following facts with reference to the meals and 
equipment: "There are 4 kettles, with a capacity of 250 liters (75 
gallons). The meals consist of a soup of vegetables, 30 centimes 
($0.06), and 120 grams (4 ounces) of boneless meat, with vegetables, 
90 centimes ($0.18)." 

The British ministry of food, in the installation of the national 
kitchens set for itself the problem of interfering as little as possible 
with the food habits of the population, and of making the transition 
from home cooking to the buying of food ready cooked as easy as 
possible. While it had under advisement the education of its public 
in the use of foods of greater nutritive value and in many cases more 
available than the more familiar foods, it did not make the mistake 
of Holland in selling at the kitchens the foods already unpopular 
through tradition or special circumstance. Instead, the kitchens 
started by serving foods that were appetizing, popular, familiar, and 
attractive. 

The menus had to be prepared with a view in the beginning to the 
preparation and sale of only those foods which could be warmed suc- 
cessfully without spoiling. It will be remembered that the original 
plans for the kitchens called only for the sale of foods to be taken 
away. The modification of this plan by opening restaurants in con- 
nection with the kitchens has changed the planning of the menus, 
also the hours during which the kitchens are open. The early 
kitchens were in most cases open from 11 a. m. to about 2 p. m., but 
at the present time there is great variation in this matter. 

In the Hammersmith kitchen a weekly bill of fare is used. A 
typical menu is: Mutton broth, Id.; mutton pie, 3d.; cheese cutlet, 
2d.; potatoes, Id.; sirup roll, Id. Except for occasional rissoles, it 
may be said that the meat is always in pie form, an arrangement 
which simplifies the choice of appliances, and facilitates cooking, 
service, and the convenience of the public, which has to carry away 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 39 

and warm up the food. The meat pies are baked in small tins, so 
that one whole pie goes to each purchaser. 

A typical menu of such kitchens as those of Westminster, Ealing, 
and Reading, which provide a wider variety, is as follows: Scotch 
broth, l^d. ; fish roll, 2d. ; vegetable pie, 2d. ; mince, 4d. ; roast meat, 
5d. ; potatoes, Id.; parsnips, Id.; ginger pudding, 2d.; plain pudding 
and sauce, 2d. ; baked rice pudding, l£d. 

The Halifax tramcar kitchen served the following menu on its 
first day: 

f pint soup Id. 

Dumpling Id. 

Vegetable pie 4d. 

Potatoes Id. 

Rice pudding l£d. 

Ginger pudding 2d. 

A kitchen at Buckingham Palace Road, London, offered in Janu- 
uary, 1918, the following menu : 

Vegetable soup Id. 

Beef stew 3d. 

Meat pies 2d. 

Roast joint 4d. and 6d. 

Steamed potatoes Id. 

Cabbage Id. 

Treacle pudding lid. 

Rice pudding Id. 

Extra portions of gravy , £d. 

The central cooperative kitchen at Holloway, conducted by the 
Northern Polytechnic and serving 2,500 patrons daily, offered this 
menu in February : Soup, beef stew, meat pies, roast joint, tripe and 
onions, baked herrings, potatoes, cabbage, treacle, or rice pudding. 

The Chelsea national kitchen offers an appetizing and varied bill 
of fare. There is always a whole fish sold at a higher cost than 
made-up fish. A midday bill of fare comprised barley soup, l^d.; 
baked haddock 6d. ; and kedgeree, 3d.; the vegetables were potatoes 
and braised onions. There were three kinds of sweets and savory 
rice at 3d. Cold meats are on sale in the evening. 

These menus give some idea of the kind of food sold, its variety, 
and the range of prices. They are chosen from menus given at per- 
haps the darkest period through which England has passed with 
respect to her food supply, and reflect the care with which the 
authorities dealt with the food habits of the nation. 

The causes of success and failure in the national experiment in 
communal kitchens made by Great Britain are intimately connected 
with the question as to their future. The one chief criticism, that 
they are a step away from family life and in the direction of com- 
munism, was met at the time of their inception by the answer of 



40 AGENCIES FOB THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

their sheer, dire necessity. That the problem of actual food scarcity, 
for which they were offered as a partial solution, will continue into 
the after-the-war period has been generally accepted as a fact. 

There is little doubt that the kitchens have successfully met the 
temptation to profiteering which arises in times of crisis. An edito- 
rial writer in the Manchester Guardian, March 12, 1918, said : 

London is beginning to realize how enormous is the profit of the caterer in all 
but the most humble restaurants. The broad fact is that most restaurants have 
steadily cut down their portions of unrationed as well as of rationed food, and 
have increased their prices to a point far beyond that of the commodities. 

That commercial enterprises could not be trusted to step in to meet 
the need is shown by the writer in the Quarterly Review for January, 
1918, when he makes the nice distinction between a " commer- 
cially profitable demand " and a " national advantage," and says : 

Until the standard of life in the more populous centers has been raised to a 
point at which the demand for ready-cooked meals of satisfactory quality be- 
comes effective, the private cookshop is likely to concentrate on a few popular 
but frequently wasteful and comparatively expensive foods. 

A contributing cause of the failure of some of the earlier kitchens 
was the use of too much volunteer and untrained help. Workers inex- 
perienced in such catering did not understand either the proper com- 
bination of foods to secure an adequate and attractive diet or how 
to purchase and serve to avoid waste of money and materials. 

It was evident that this danger was recognized, for the members of 
the ministry of food repeatedly deprecated the use of volunteer help- 
ers in their public utterances, and expressly stipulated that the 
kitchens must "pay their way." It is also often observed by those 
interested that the presence of volunteer workers " creates an atmos- 
phere of condescension and patronage." The founders of the Italian, 
Austrian, and German kitchens advocated their use, as lessening the 
gap between the social classes. But this way of lessening class-con- 
flict does not seem to appeal to the Britisher. This is particularly 
true in kitchens which hope to reach the middle class. 

The following reasons were given for the non-success of some of the 
earlier English kitchens: 1 

( 1 ) The expensive system adopted of a central kitchen with distributing 
s instead of having self-contained kitchens. 

(2) No proper system of deciding the sale prices of the articles sold. 

(3) The fact that voluntary helpers sell food at depots without the assistance 
of a paid supervisor. 

(4) That the tickets used are not properly checked with the number of 
portions sold. 

(5) That the portions returned and portions sold do not agree with the 
total number of portions sent out. 

» Municipal Journal, June 28, 1918, p. 687. 



AGENCIES FOE THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 41 

(6) The monotony in menus — too much fried food, using a quantity of fat 
for cooking and frying purposes, and an insufficient quantity of vegetables, 
sauces, and gravies. 

(7) Selling of cold food. 

(8) That there has been no system of valuing stock each week. 

Mr. Cox has strongly recommended that the present system of 
control kitchens be discontinued, and that in place of it a self-con- 
tained kitchen with a restaurant should be established; that a store- 
keeper and cashier should be appointed, whose duty it would be to 
issue stores daily to the cook in charge, with a statement of their 
value. Care should also be taken to see that the profit on the food 
sold be about 33^ per cent of the cost of the raw material, and that 
in no case should it be less than 25 per cent. 

The writer of an open letter written to the Manchester Guardian 
attributes some of the hindrances to the success of the national kitch- 
ens to the ministry ; others are deeply ingrained in the habits of the 
people; others are matters of organization, administration, and ex- 
perience. Although this writer looks upon the kitchens as primarily 
a war measure to provide for a reliable distribution of cheap and 
wholesome meals, he adds : * 

There may very likely be a permanent place in our social system for the 
national or municipal kitchen. It may revolutionize the methods of providing 
family dinners, and ultimately domestic cookery may have to be reckoned 
among the lost arts, but with a compensating gain to woman from freedom 
from toil and worry and monotony in the service of the home. 

A much copied exchange used in labor papers and entitled " Na- 
tional Kitchens Popular in England," says : 2 

The question naturally arises: Will these institutions, which are proving of 
such immense economic value at the present time, survive the war? If we 
admit that the unparalleled position which woman at the present time occupies 
in the industrial world may have effects beyond the wildest dreams of specu- 
lation, it is not difficult to make out a case for the survival of the national 
kitchen. 

It is significant in this connection that the platform of the 
"Woman's Party in England includes the plank: 

Food rations, accompanied by the development of communal kitchens, so as 
to economize domestic labor, reduce food waste, and guarantee to the people 
the best possible food at the lowest possible prices, cooked in the most skillful 
way, so that its full nutritive value may be secured. 

1 Reprinted in Local Government Chronicle, May 25, 1918, p. 341. 

- The Square Deal. Devoted to the interests of organized labor. Vol. IV, No. 13, Aug. 
16, 1918. 

Since the above was written the following note has appeared in the Canadian Food 
Bulletin (No. 21, Ottawa, December, 1918) : "A scheme for a national kitchen at Bath, 
England, has been rejected by the city council. It was stated that Liverpool has closed 
five such kitchens after losing £1,000 on each." 



42 AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

The immediate future of the British national kitchens seems to 
lie in the development of canteen and restaurant facilities. The na- 
tional restaurant in New Bridge Street, London, to be run as both 
kitchen and restaurant, was opened as a model. The cooking is done 
by steam, gas, and electricity, the roasting by electricity, and the boil- 
ing by gas. It was opened on June 26, 1918, and its immediate suc- 
cess showed the need for these restaurants in populous neighbor- 
hoods. Shops, offices, and homes in the vicinity may send and collect 
their own meals or have them delivered at an extra charge of a penny. 
Others have since been opened in London, Leeds, Glasgow, Man- 
chester, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Brighton, Cardiff, Birmingham, and 
Bristol. 

The representative of the United States Department of Labor in 
Great Britain writes of the New Bridge Street restaurant as follows r 1 

The moderate price restaurant keepers * * * have been much opposed 
to this undertaking of the ministry of food, claiming that it could not succeed 
without a Government subsidy, owing to the low prices charged and the large 
portions served. The figures given in the report for four weeks show, accord- 
ing to the director, a profit of 70 per cent per annum, and, as has been said, 
" suggest that it is really possible to supply nourishing food in satisfying quan- 
tities at low prices and yet obtain a very substantial profit." * * * At 
none of the other eating places are such large portions served as at the Na- 
tional restaurant, and at most of them the prices are slightly higher. If there 
is any difference in the quality of the food served it is all in favor of the 
Government restaurant. 

One is much impressed at this restaurant by the class of people who use the 
place. They are all rather prosperous-looking middle-class people, and I fear 
the people for whom the place was supposedly designed do not get much benefit 
from it. * * * * 

The menu for the day, with prices, hangs outside the door. About a dozen 
people are admitted at a time, and they, having decided upon their order, ask 
the cashier just inside for checks for the total amount they are to spend 
* * *. Then one proceeds to the long serving counter and gets whatever 
one desires on a tray, somewhat as in our cafeterias, except that each dish is 
served by an attendant who takes the necessary check in return. The tables 
are set [by waitresses, who also clear them] with all the requisite cutlery and 
drinking water and glasses. The china and cutlery are most satisfactory. 
The service is rapid, all things considered. On the whole, however, the man- 
ager might learn much in that respect from a study of those marvelous 
Chicago cafeterias * * *. 

I lunched on soup (2d. [4 cents]), rice pudding (3d. [6 cents]), bread and 
butter — three slices — (2d. [4 cents]), and coffee (2d. [4 cents]); total, lid. 
['22 cents], and I have not yet ceased being astonished at the quantity and 
quality of everything * * *. There was almost no noise and no loud talk- 
ing. Everyone was apparently enjoying his lunch and having a restful break 
in his day's work, as well. That is more than we can say for ourselves in 
Washington at lunch time * * *. 

1 Cost of Food in National Restaurants in London, by N. C. Adams, Monthly Labor Re- 
view, November, 1918, pp. 121-122. See also Municipal Journal, July 12, 1918, p. 729, 
and article by P. B. Kennedy in Commerce Reports, U. S. Department of State, Aug. 8, 
1918, pp. 520-522. 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 43 

Prices In the first-class restaurants and the moderate-priced places in London 
are practically the same as in America, but I have never seen a place at home 
where I could get for the money as satisfactory a lunch as I had at this 
restaurant. 

At about the time of the opening of the first national restaurant 
the ministry of food announced that it would take over from the 
former contractor the three canteens in the Southampton dock- 
yards and convert them into national kitchens, reequipping the build- 
ing with steam and electrical cooking arrangements. There are some 
10,000 employees in the yards. 

As one reviews the history of the British national kitchen move- 
ment, it becomes evident that it has not been clear sailing, in spite 
of the courage, enthusiasm, and resourcefulness of the responsible 
members of the ministry of food. The lessons to be learned may be 
summarized from the pages of the writer in the monthly review 
before quoted : 

Public kitchens, to be successful, must be opened in the right 
neighborhood. 

Kitchens must be located in attractive premises, in prominent posi- 
tions. 

Kitchens will have to offer such value for the money as to compete 
effectively with the privately cooked meal. 

Kitchens will have to study the tastes and prejudices of their pa- 
trons, introducing unfamiliar dishes gradually. 

Public kitchens will have to make the most of their advantage as 
public and patriotic institutions, enjoying the support of the food 
authorities. They will need the advantage of centralized buying at 
wholesale prices ; they will need help in the shape of information, in- 
struction, and advice; and they will need the "good will" attached 
to their public character. 



THE AMERICAN SITUATION. 

The history of the cooperative movement in America, up to the 
great war, is an epitome of attempts at the development of agencies 
which undertook to relieve the housewife of some of the burdens of 
the individual kitchens. American individualism, the enormous dis- 
tances covered by the States, the variety of peoples, customs, tradi- 
tions, and an underlying conservatism which was a part of the social 
inheritance from Puritanism, are all but a part of the reason for the 
slow growth of movements which would bind communities closer 
together. There have been isolated cases of sucessful coopertive 
stores ; there are successful experiments here and there in cooperative 
housekeeping; there are to-day small community kitchens which 
have a degree of success. Miss Fee, supervisor of the kitchens of the 
Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor of New York 
City, told the writer that at a dietetics conference held recently, 
when the subject of community kitchens was introduced, to the in- 
tense surprise of every one it was found that there were present fif- 
teen women interested in some venture of the sort, none of whom 
knew of the work of the others. It may be that grim necessity will 
act as a reagent on the chaos of the present and create a unity which 
will be essentially American, not something copied from the British 
national kitchens, still less from the Teutonic Volkskiichen with 
their " soup kitchen " tradition to alienate the self-respecting working 
and middle class. 

All that a preliminary study of this sort can hope to do is to pre- 
sent such material as is available on agencies which have to do with 
the preparation of food in bulk for use in the home. There are two 
forms of commercial ventures which have successfully entered this 
field of which we shall merely speak in passing. The public bakery 
has to a very large extent superseded home baking in the larger com- 
munities. In Europe, many of these bakeries are cooperative; but 
in the United States they are commercial ventures, more or less suc- 
cessful from the dietetic point of view. The exigencies of the war 
caused a deterioration in the output of many of the bakeries because 
of the difficulty of making bread in quantities with the modified flour. 
Many war agencies in various cities have ventured into the field pre- 
viously preempted by the baker. For example, all of the bread for 
44 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 45 

the city canteens maintained by the mayor's committee of women on 
national defense of New York City is now baked in the city kitchen. 

Another cooked-food agency which has made itself a part of city 
life is the delicatessen shop. In cities where apartment-house life is 
the home life of the mass of the middle class, where there are many 
women who work but who prefer to eat at home, the delicatessen 
shop in its better form has been a boon. It is true, however, that it 
has not been an unmodified blessing from the standpoint of health or 
financial economy. While there are no statistics available, there has 
been enough investigation of the delicatessen trade in some of the 
large American cities to make it a certainty that much of the food 
used in certain types of shops is of low grade, bought on the verge 
of spoiling and salvaged with dressings highly seasoned and deco- 
rated. A study made by a worker for the board of health in one 
city of the sources of supply for delicatessen shops uncovered the 
fact that very little high-grade material was used. This is probably 
equally true of other cities. The food is, therefore, relatively ex- 
pensive. The study alluded to showed that the delicatessen shops 
are prospering under war conditions because of the demand for 
women in labor. That there are large night sales is indicated by the 
difficulty in getting delicatessen shops to conform to any closing 
program. When the dealers were asked to close early in order to 
save light, heat, and food, they made the very interesting remon- 
strance that their best patrons were those employed late at night. 
It would seem that any city community kitchen venture should take 
this statement into account in planning its hours for serving the 
public, if it desires to reach the public to which the delicatessen 
shops cater. It would also seem that there could never be a better 
time to bring the delicatessen shop into line with other agencies in 
the conservation of food and the preservation of the national health. 
It can be made a more important institution than it now is if the 
suspicion of the quality of its product can be removed from the 
reputable dealers by adequate investigation and supervision, with a 
consequent standardization of products. 

No account, however brief, of ventures in the large scale prepara- 
tion of wholesome food to be consumed in the home would be com- 
plete without telling the story of the New England kitchen, an experi- 
ment undertaken in the early nineties "to determine the successful 
conditions of preparing by scientific methods, from the cheaper food 
materials, nutritious and palatable dishes, which should find a readv 
demand at paying prices." According to a statement made by Mrs. 
Ellen H. Richards in the preface to the story of this kitchen written 
by its founder, Mrs. Mary Hinman Abel, the success of the kitchen 
was directly due to Mrs. Abel's hard work as well as to her unusual 
ability, enthusiasm, and ready tact. In other words, the situation 



46 AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

then did not directly call for the kitchen, but the kitchen had to edu- 
cate its public. 

The New England kitchen was not founded primarily to pay its 
way. A fund had been provided ; those who took the fund were left 
free to work according to their discretion. That it was on its feet 
financially in two years was owing to its proximity to a school to 
which it served lunches (see p. 18). 

The business side of this kitchen venture was never prominent. 
Mrs. Abel was able to proceed with the venture, according to the 
terms of the gift, without giving a thought to the cost. The price of 
the food sold was meant to cover little more than the cost of pro- 
duction. But the kitchen taught the founder many things about the 
method for a paying kitchen. As to organization, she advises " a 
stock company with a board of directors, scientific and medical men, 
with a delivery system for choice foods, food for invalids, bread, etc." 
One of the great obstacles to the success of such ventures Mrs. Abel 
believes to be " the mixed nationalities and varied tastes of the in- 
habitants of our cities." This kitchen later became a part of the 
plant of the Women's Industrial and Educational Union of Boston, 
which has been a pioneer in much scientific work connected with 
the problems created for women by their absorption into industrial 
life, and whose recent study of " The Food of Working Women in 
Boston " shows conclusively how serious a problem is created for the 
Nation by the underfeeding of so large a percentage of the future 
mothers of the Nation during the most important period of their lives. 

Mrs. Abel has kept a record of community ventures in kitchens 
and cooperative housekeeping over a long period, beginning with the 
eighties. They are so much alike in their leading features that to 
tell the story of one or two is to give the substance of all. In one 
thing they agree — few have been permanently successful. 

A kitchen in Carthage, Mo., was in operation from September, 
1907, to January, 1911. In this case the patrons came to the house 
in which the kitchen was located for all their meals. Each family 
furnished its own table, chairs, dishes, linen, silver, and also such 
table decorations, jellies, pickles, and other " extras " as it desired, 
thus following its own tastes and standards. The tables were suffi- 
ciently far apart to permit of intimate conversation at each, a feature 
which was believed to increase the home-like feeling of the place. 
This feeling was carefully fostered by the paid superintendent, and 
much of the success of the venture was laid to her ability to make 
the members feel that their individual tastes were not disregarded. 
Its failure was attributed to the steady rise in price of materials and 
labor. Those members who could not afford to pay the increased cost 
for keeping up the original standard apparently preferred to do 
their economizing in the privacy of their own homes. Of course the 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 47 

decrease in membership raised the overhead cost per capita and thus 
forced an increase in the charges out of proportion to the increase in 
the cost in food and wages. 

To provide the original equipment for the kitchen an assessment of 
$3 per adult and $1.50 per child was made. There were originally 
sixty members, including 10 or 12 children. This money was used 
to equip the kitchen, a cheap but large ice box, a cook stove, cooking 
vessels, serving table, furniture for servants' rooms, and muslin cur- 
tains for the entire house being provided. 

For the first three months the weekly price was $3 for adult, $1.50 
lor child. As the number decreased and the prices of food advanced 
this amount was increased. When the number decreased to 50, the 
price of board advanced to $3.50. In the fall of 1909 the number 
decreased to 45. For the next two years board was $4 a week, $2 for 
children. In 1910 there was a very bad drought through that part of 
the country and vegetables and fruits were very high. Potatoes sold 
all the fall for $3 a bushel. The number of members had fallen off 
still more and an extra assessment of 20 cents per week, per capita, 
was; made for the last twelve weeks that the place remained in opera- 
tion. 

The equipment purchased with the original assessment was in a 
dilapidated condition at the end of four years. There was nothing of 
any value but the stove, which was sold at one-half of the price paid 
for it originally. The curtains and a few things were sold to a 
second-hand man. The money obtained for these was used to make 
good the deficit in the final accounts. 

Another cooperative venture in Evanston, 111., which attracted 
a good deal of attention, lasted four years. According to this plan, 
food could be sent to the kitchen from the homes, cooked and 
returned. 

Charlotte Talley, writing of "A Cooperative kitchen that is meet- 
ing a need in its community," says that it took this kitchen two years 
to develop in the minds of its founders before becoming a reality. 1 
A society was first organized. Although $1,000 was desired as a 
working capital, the venture started with $900, 90 persons having 
taken one share each. A communal dining room was tastefully 
equipped, but meals were also sent to the homes in automobiles hired 
for the purpose. Maids were sometimes sent from this kitchen to 
serve the meals in the homes, and catering was done for entertain- 
ments. The prices charged for the meals were, for subscribers: 
Breakfast, $0.25; luncheon, $0.35; dinner, $0.50. Ten cents addi- 
tional for breakfast and luncheon, and 15 cents more for dinner were 
charged to nonsubscribers. A fee of 10 cents was charged for de- 

* Journal of Home Economics, vol. VII, August-September, 1915. 



48 AGENCIES FOK THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

livery. The food-carrier used was the Swedish container consisting 
of a tier of enamel or aluminum dishes which fit into a receptacle 
like an ice-cream container. 

This kitchen had five workers: Manager, assistant manager, cook, 
butler, and waitress. "On a week investigated, 420 persons were 
served. The per capita cost was $0.31. On this amount the kitchen 
broke even." 

The writer has no data as to the effect war conditions has had on 
any of these ventures, with the exception of the Montclair community 
venture, probably the most successful up to the war of any of the 
American experiments. War conditions made it necessary for it to 
go out of business, not, however, without having taught many valu- 
able lessons in the plan of capitalization and organization which may 
be used later by others who believe that the marvelous increase in co- 
operation in European countries will finally have its counterpart in 
the United States. 

Improvements were gradually made by the education of dealers 
through these ventures in the »kind of food carrier needed. The 
kitchens found also that they had to be less educational at the start 
and cater more to individual tastes. 

The following story of the brave beginning and untimely end of a 
communal kitchen in New York in 1918 holds in it much that is 
suggestive. This venture does not stand alone. 

The kitchen whose story is to be told was opened by a volunteer 
workers' organization in a congested district of upper New York, 
where all nationalities and religions are present. Many of the chil- 
dren of the neighborhood were known to be suffering from malnutri- 
tion, and living conditions were bad. It was the purpose of the 
women interested to cater to the most needy part of the neighborhood. 

The money for equipment was donated, but it was hoped that the 
kitchen could be made to pay running expenses. On this basis, it 
was calculated that from 35 to 40 per cent must be added to the 
actual cost of the food, in order to make the kitchen pay its way. 
Rental was $35 a month. A good cook was secured for $12 a week. 
She was given two meals a day. Her helper was paid $1 a day, with 
meals. The other helpers, four or five in number, were volunteer 
workers. 

The equipment was simple, as it was not intended to provide a wide 
range of cooked food, but rather to specialize in certain dishes which 
were well known and liked. Among these were fish cakes, clam 
chowder, and stews, preferably beef stew with vegetables. Baked 
apples and prunes were the only desserts prepared. The apples 
were popularized at three for 5 cents, but it was found neces- 
sary to increase the price to four for 10 cents. The fish cakes were 



AGENCIES FOP THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 49 

standardized at three for 5 cents, although money was sometimes lost, 
which had to be made up on soups and stews. All the buying was 
done in the neighborhood by the supervisor, who was one of the vol- 
unteer workers. This was thought best for two reasons — in order 
to win the friendship of the community and in order to buy in small 
quantities and spare the expense of storeroom and ice. As little as 
possible was carried over, so that a small ice box was all that was 
necessary. Largo quantities were never prepared. Even with the 
fish cakes, which were most in demand, it was found that they were 
much better when prepared in small quantities and constantly made 
fresh. In answer to the question whether recipes can be ''doubled 
up"- with like results, the workers in this kitchen, were emphatic in 
their negatives. They also said that their customers were as quick 
to note and complain of any change as customers of higher priced 
caterers would be. 

The kitchen opened very successfully, catering to from 130 to 150 
women a day. Although it had been intended to reach the more 
needy women of the neighborhood, the kitchen was embarrassed to 
find that it was more patronized by the prosperous and thrifty ele- 
ment. After the venture was well started, however, it was found 
that a prejudice was growing against it, not because it was a charity, 
but because the spiritual advisers of the patrons thought it was a 
"communistic venture.-' Just whether this was the main cause of 
its decline is not clear. It was said here, as elsewhere, that a change 
of cooks might influence the patronage over a long period, emphasiz- 
ing the fact that the reputation of a kitchen, as of any commercial 
venture, must be maintained unimpaired. The use of so many vol- 
unteer helpers is another reason given. Still another was the great 
fluctuation of prices in the markets and the difficulty in getting some 
of the most necessary articles. 

The supervisor of this kitchen said that a similar one could be 
equipped for $800 to $1,000, provided the gas company would loan a 
stove. The most expensive article in the equipment was a 30 gallon 
copper kettle, an indispensable article. 

An effort to meet the needs of American middle class families has 
recently been inaugurated under the patronage of some prominent 
men and women. Its announcements state that the service is: 

Designed to meet tlie needs of the great mass of independent homes * * * 
uol organized :is a charity, but as a permanent effort ai social betterment, on a 
sound, self-sustaining basis that will yet save the consumer from commercial 
exploitation. 1 

The service is designed chiefly for: 

The business or professional woman living alone, the young family living 
on a small salary without maid service, the artist in studios, the large family 

1 rrospoetiis of the American Cooked Food Service, 1 Madison Avenue, New York, N. Y. 



50 AGENCIES FOIl THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

In which the mother is verging on physical breakdown through the shortage in 
domestic help, and others ranging from the isolated occupant of the hall bed- 
room in a rooming house, to families living in private homes and the highest 
type of apartment houses. 

In an estimate for the economies of this service it is said : 

Probably for the majority of patrons the cooked meals are delivered at the 
home for the same price that the retail buyer would pay for the raw food 
stuffs * * * Individual economies come through lessened maid service, 
saving in food waste, and the fuel and upkeep of the individual kitchen. 

The first station of this service was opened February 1, 1918, and 
has been in successful operation ever since. Other stations will soon 
be opened in cities of varying size. 

The cooked food is placed at the central station in containers that 
keep it hot for several hours. Separate containers carry salads, 
breads, and cold desserts. These containers are delivered by motor 
service shortly before meal time and called for at regular times there- 
after. Dinners range in price from $0.50 to $1, luncheons from $0.35 
to $0.75. It has been found necessary to charge for the bread service 
because of the rise in prices. Better rates are given for larger fami- 
lies where more portions can be delivered in one set of containers, 
and special arrangements may be made for children's meals, etc. 

New stations of the American Cooked Food Service, the name of 
this agency which aims to extend its service to every part of the 
country, are financed partly on a cooperative or popular subscription 
plan, whereby at least GO per cent of the stock required to equip and 
start a station (a total of from $15,000 to $25,000) is subscribed in 
the locality. This stock is in shares of $100 each, and may be pur- 
chased outright in amounts of from one to twenty shares, or, by 
special arrangements, may be paid for in weekly installments, which 
it may be possible to save through economies resulting from use of the 
service. 

It is stated by the president of the service that the unit of service, 
on which estimates as to equipment, etc., is to be based will be limited 
to 500, because beyond that number the home-like quality of the food 
can not be preserved. In case the demand for service exceeds the 
capacity of the station, stockholders are given the preference. It is 
believed from the experience already obtained that a center will be 
financially self-supporting when the full quota of 500 are served. 1 

The success of this unique experiment will be watched with in- 
terest by all who hope to see a standardization of the efforts now 
being made to meet a situation which is new to Americans, so ac- 
customed to plenty, but now called upon to economize not from 
purely selfish motives, but in order that we may divide with those 

*Ttiis account was prepared in December, 1918. 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 51 

who are in sore need. Those interested in methods of relieving the 
domestic labor shortage will also be anxious to see how far it alle- 
\ Lates what in many instances is becoming a hopeless condition. 

A similar service, but on a much smaller scale, was privately started 
in 1918 in Burlington, Vt. The containers are made by a local 
dealer; they are metal boxes with insulating walls and a door in front 
into which fit the trays for the different foods. The chief criticism 
reported of this service was that the menus were vegetarian to ac- 
cord with the ideas of the founder and manager. It has been is suc- 
ii:! operation for some months. 
The community kitchen of St. Louis, Mo., is a significant enter- 
prise born of war-time needs. The following description is com- 
piled from correspondence and reports in the files of the woman's 
committee of the Council of National Defense, with which the St. 
Louis workers were affiliated. This semiphilanthropic venture 
closely follows the lines of some of the early communal kitchens in 
England. Although it is still too young to give any basis for 
prophecy, there is much for other communities to learn from its 
methods. 

In carrying out the work of the United States Food Administra- 
tion, it became evident to the women's central committee on food con- 
servation in St. Louis that the problems of the city's congested dis- 
tricts were not the usual ones of the associated charities. They 
were rather new difficulties born of war conditions and directly con- 
nected with the present food emergency. An investigation carried 
on through the winter months of 1017-18 showed that it was im- 
possible to feed a family of six with an adequate healthful diet on a 
dollar a day. supposedly the maximum allowance for food on a 
weekly income of $15. 

After the survey that showed the aeuteness of the food problem 
among the working classes, the women's central committee put in 
the held a corps of visiting housekeepers to work with the associated 
charities. It was found by these workers that "the old problems 
of ignorance in regard to home management, sorely aggravated in 
the present crisis, were found to be playing havoc, with the health 
of the community in the poor districts of the city." 

As the months of the winter went by, the idea of community 
kitchens as the only economic way to solve some of the problems 
made a strong appeal to the workers. The increasing number of 
women in industry with dependent families and their impossible 
situation in regard to providing proper food for their families, 
finally confirmed the need for radical measures of assistance. It 
was decided to establish a chain of community kitchens under tho 



52 AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

direction of the women's central committee on food conservation as 
a war measure. At these kitchens an adequate ration was to be pro- 
vided at a cost on the cash-and-carry plan for that part of the popu- 
lation at present unable to feed itself either comfortably or health- 
fully. 

In announcing the decision to open community kitchens, the com- 
mittee called attention, first, to the importance of keeping up 
standards of health in war times; second, the experience of our 
allies in the necessity of proper feeding for factory workers; 
" third, but not last in degree of importance or seriousness, comes 
the tremendous responsibility of fostering the health of the children 
of to-day, upon whom Avill fall the enormous burdens of the recon- 
struction period." Attention was also called to the saving of fuel 
and foodstuffs. 

It was estimated that a chain of five kitchens would meet the needs 
of St. Louis with the food situation as it was in the spring of 1918. 
The location of the kitchens was to be determined by the poverty of 
the neighborhood, the presence of factories, especially those employ- 
ing women, by the proximity of a market, and by the density of 
population. 

The kitchens were to be conducted on the following schedule: In 
the morning from 6.30 to 8.30, cash-and-carry milk, bread, and 
cereals will be for sale. At noon the cafeteria will serve a complete 
meal in a. single dish, of soup, with a roll, and coffee. Soup wagon- 
ettes will be wheeled to the factories in the neighborhood, each 
wagon equipped to serve 80 pints, and carrying in attached con- 
tainers the same number of 2-ounce rolls. A pint of soup and a 
roll are sold for 5 cents. From 4.30 to 8 the cafeteria will be open 
for the evening meal, consisting of meat, a vegetable, a starch, and 
a dessert. Patrons who desire to carry their meal home will call for 
it in three buckets — one for meat and vegetables, one for the starch, 
and one for the dessert. There will be full and half portions, the 
entire meal to cost per person, 5 cents for the half-portion meal and 
10 cents for the full portion. 

Preparatory work was done in the factories by members of the 
Consumers' League to enlist the interest and cooperation of the man- 
agers. It was emphasized that the kitchen was to be a self-sup- 
porting, self-respecting enterprise, in no way to be considered in the 
light of a charity. It was to be an efficient way of handling the food 
problem on a community plan. It Avas purposed to make the kitchen 
a neighborhood center for information in regard to questions of diet, 
of general hygiene, and of better home management. It was arranged 
to have cooking demonstrations and talks given by the St. Louis 
home demonstration agents of the agricultural extension service. 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 53 

The money for the establishment of these kitchens was earned 
through a patriotic food show. Of the $5,000 thus acquired, $2,000 
was set aside for the experiment. It was agreed to open one kitchen 
and run it for several months before opening the other four. The 
business basis agreed upon was as follows: 

The daily overhead was estimated by adding the salaries, rent, 
light, fuel, ice, to the actual cost of raw materials, plus insurance and 
depreciation. Depreciation was estimated at 1/305 of the initial in- 
vestment. To this was added another 1/365 of the initial investment 
representing the portion of the investment indebtedness to be paid 
back daily. On some days during the first three weeks of the first 
kitchen, it was possible to meet this complete proportion. A fault 
in equipment which made it impossible to take care of the number 
of people necessary to meet the overhead had to be remedied during 
the first month. It was estimated on the basis of reports of other 
kitchens, especially those in Great Britain, that an allowance of 30 
per cent over the actual cost of materials would cover the overhead 
and make the kitchen self-supporting. 

The first kitchen, whose initial equipment cost about $1,000. was 
opened at 1729-1731 South Seventh Street, in a quaint building in 
the heart of a factory district. There are ten large factories employ- 
ing many women in the immediate neighborhood. Four day nurs- 
eries are filled to capacity in this district, giving proof that the 
mothers are at work in the factories. Social workers state that there 
was no more needy district in the city during the winter, 1917-18. 
A market is within the block, also a cannery conducted during the 
summer by the women's central committee on food conservation. In 
the auditorium of a library in the block two cooking schools have 
been conducted by the committee, one in the spring of 1917 and one 
this year, with an average attendance of 200 foreign-born women, 
Poles, Lithuanians, Hungarians, and Germans. 

The building in which the kitchen was opened lends itself admir- 
ably to the work. The caretaker and his wife occupy one of the two 
second floor apartments. The wife is an unusually intelligent Hun- 
garian who was quick to see that her home should measure up to the 
standard of cleanliness in the kitchen below. On the opening day 
she threw open her doors without any suggestion on the part of the 
committee, to the guests of the kitchen. It is hoped that this apart- 
ment can be made a model for a family of small means. The other 
apartment is to be made into an old clothes clinic. On the third 
floor a large store is used for storage of fumigated clothes, and for 
groceries and supplies. The basement oilers storage for the canned 
fruits and vegetables to be preserved during the summer for the use 
of the kitchens. 



54 AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

Much of the initial equipment was given below cost by those in- 
terested and, in some cases, as an outright gift. The china, shelves, 
lighting fixtures, wash machines, mangles, water heaters, tea-towel 
dryers, and gas steam heaters were donated. The cooking equip- 
ment consists of two ovens and nine stock pots, heavy copper, stand- 
ing each on an iron tripod. There are four 10-gallon stock pots, 
four 10-gallon double boilers, and one 25-gallon soup kettle. The 
cooking is done in the serving room; a large counter shuts off the 
kitchen end from the cafeteria. The preparation room in the rear 
is cemented. Here vegetables are cleaned, groceries received, and a 
large ice-box located. Uniforms, tea-towels, and dishes are washed 
in the rear rooms. A model back yard poultry unit has been in- 
stalled in the back yard by the poultry committee of the production 
division of the women's central committee on food conservation. 

A bill board in front of the building announces the menu for the 
next day. A large painted wooden sign over the entrance reads: 

" THIS IS TOUR KITCHEN — WE DO YOUR COOKING FOR YOU." 

The woman in charge of the kitchen has had experience in a 
similar enterprise abroad. A volunteer worker has charge of the 
cash register. The women of the neighborhood give much volunteer 
service. They have hemmed all the dish towels; they have helped 
with the cleaning; they have washed every utensil and dish that has 
come into the building. " The purpose from the beginning has been 
to make them feel that it was their kitchen and their attitude bears 
proof that this has been successfully carried out.''' 

The seating capacity of the cafeteria is GO, with room to increase 
it. Within an hour 120 persons can be served at the tables. It was 
found that about 50 per cent of the customers were for the cafeteria 
and 50 per cent cash-and-carry meals. In addition to the service at 
the kitchen, wagonettes take out meals to factories near by. One of 
the factories sends a porter for the wagonette, and a woman in 
Hoover costume is in attendance. The kitchen has more calls for 
this kind of service- than it can supply at present, but will make pro- 
vision to meet it as soon as it becomes evident that the demand is to 
be a steady one. One of the workers says : " The only way to find 
out whether an idea is going to be popular is to make an actual 
experiment." 

The cash-and-carry bucket meal is served from the counter. 
Women leave their buckets on their way to work. The capacity 
for the evening meal is 250; for the noon hour, 480; at breakfast 960 
persons can be served with cereal. Since the cooking equipment is 
in units it is possible to increase the capacity on two weeks' notice. 

It was a question as to whether it would pay to keep the. kitchen 
open on Sunday, but it was thought better to try it out, so meals were 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 55 

served the first three Sundays. There was a loss each time. The 
kitchen was then closed on Sunday. To quote a worker: "Appar- 
ently the women employed in factories (he week round like to have a 
thoroughly domestic time on Sunday." 

This wholehearted and carefully worked out experiment in com- 
munal kitchens will be watched with great interest. It is too early 
1o venture prophecy as to its permanent value, except on the basis of 
our previous studies. It is still an open question in America as to 
w hot her the enthusiasm of the volunteer worker can make up for her 
lack of training. And inasmuch as even trained dietitians and 
cooks were found in England to be bettered by a special training for 
national kitchen work, it may be best to utilize the good will of vol- 
unteer workers in the present emergency. It will be well, however, 
to remember that in the long run it is necessary to use paid workers 
who are sure to be in their place at fixed hours and who are more 
amenable to discipline when an experiment is on its way to become 
an institution. 

The problem of the feeding of school children has been considered 
in several American cities, but in no such definite and organized way 
throughout the country as has been done in Germany, and in England 
since the statistics gathered as a result of the Boer War have brought 
her face to face with the effects of malnutrition on her population. 
It had proceeded far enough, however, for such cities as Boston and 
New York to have well-worked-out plans for central kitchens from 
which a wholesome meal can be sent to thousands of school children 
every school day. When the problem of communal kitchens con- 
fronted the British ministry of food, it was to the local education 
boards that they most often looked for equipment and direction, 
and it was to the dietitians trained for the schools that they looked 
for the workers in the early national kitchens. It is therefore with 
some relief that we find in our own country that a worker in the 
Boston central kitchen has worked out under the supervision of the 
research department of the Women's Educational and Industrial 
Union a complete scheme for the equipment of a central kitchen. In- 
formation is also available concerning the equipment of the central 
kit* hen of the Xew York School Lunch Committee. These two organi- 
zations have most kindly allowed this material to be printed as ap- 
pendices to this report. (See Appendix A, pp. 65 to 7:>, and Ap- 
pendix B, pp. 74 and 75.) 

In a recent attempt to study the system by which lunches are sup- 
plied to school children in New York City, the first discovery made 
was that there is only one New York City agency serving lunches 
to school children, the New York school lunch committee. 105 East 
Twenty-second Street, New York. This committee has no connection 



56 AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

■with the board of education, except that several years ago the board 
appropriated $25,000 to assist in providing schools with the necessary 
permanent equipment, such as sinks, gas ranges, copper boilers, 
closets, tables, benches, etc. There is a Brooklyn school lunch com- 
mittee with activities confined to Brooklyn ; but neither of these 
school lunch committees is in any way connected with the other, or 
with the board of education, except in the single case of the appro- 
priation specified above. 

The New York school lunch committee has been in the field longest 
and has in operation a large central kitchen. This kitchen was fitted 
up at a total expense of about $20,000, through the kindness of a 
Avoman interested in the project, and through the grant by the board 
of education of an old building once used as a school annex. From 
this kitchen as a center 25 schools are supplied. With its equipment, 
however, Miss Elizabeth M. Fee, the supervisor, estimates that it is 
working at only about one-third its capacity. On this basis, it should 
be serving 75 of the 208 schools of Manhattan and the Bronx. The 
need for this service is obvious. In a statement made by the com- 
mittee it is shown that the seven to ten thousand children reached by 
the school lunch service are only 5 per cent of the children in need of 
the service in Greater New York. 

In a pamphlet on " School Lunches " issued by the New York 
School Lunch Committee, the following paragraph on "What it 
Costs " appears i 1 

The committee has constantly aimed to make the school lunch service self- 
supporting to the extent of covering the cost of the food and its preparation. 
The cost of equipment and supervision, it feels, ought not to be paid for by the 
pupils but by the city as a legitimate charge against education. While the 
lunch sales have thus far always covered the cost of the food, they have never 
covered entirely the cost of preparing it. The financial statement for the year 
1916-17 shows that the receipts in addition to paying for the food, paid for 60 
per cent of the labor costs. It is likely that by a wise extension and cooperation 
of the work, the remaining 40 per cent of this item could also be covered. 

Excerpts from the paragraph on "What the Children Eat" are 
significant in a forecast of what would be one of the problems of a 
community venture in cooking in an American community, with its 
\aiiety of race and religion: 

Racial and religious tastes and prejudices must be carefully considered in 
determining the menus offered. In Jewish schools only food which complies 
with the Jewish religion and tradition is offered; in a similar way racial prefer- 
ences are catered to in Italian schools. In schools attended by both Hebrews 
and Italians, the situation is still further complicated, and the problem is met by 
offering in the menu both Italian and Jewish dishes. * * * The committee 
has found that the improperly fed child at first rebels against the kind of food 



1 School lunches: Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor, 105 East 
Twenty-second Street, New York. 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 57 

offered in the school lunch, but that lie gradually comes to like it and eventually 
demands th<' same kind of food at home. By this rather indirect method the 
food habits of the entire family are gradually improved. 

This same society maintains a kitchen on the west side in a district 
where many of the mothers are at work all day. It was founded 
by donation and may be called semiphilanthropic in purpose. It cor- 
responds more closely to the Volkskiichen than any kitchen Ave have 
hitherto < Inscribed. 1 

Looking back over the history of group or mass feeding and re- 
\ tewing the various experiments, both successful and unsuccessful, 
with a view to the situation in the United States to-da}', there are 
certain conclusions to be drawn. First of all, America has been a 
land of plenty, and the wars, famines, and pestilences which have 
been prolonged enough in their effects in Europe to bring beyond 
the experimental stage such institutions as Rumford kitchens, Volks- 
kiichen, cucini popolari, etc., have never come to us. The pressure 
which will lead to our own experimentation will be not alone the 
necessity growing out of the war, but something else which is a part 
of the idealism at the root of the whole-hearted enthusiasm which 
has energized our war-time efforts. The education of the American 
people to after-war conditions, in which we may still be responsible 
for the food of peoples who otherwise would starve, will have much 
to do in preventing a return to our old laissez-faire attitude toward 
the world outside America. 

There are not more than three agencies for the preparation of food 
for the household outside the home which can be said to have passed 
the experimental stage in America. Two of them, the bakery and 
the delicatessen shop, are commercial in character and are managed 
by their owners with no immediate concern for the public welfare 
other than that enforced by our laws. The other venture, still much 
less mature with us than in European countries, is the organization 
of school feeding. Such development of this phase of our national 
life as can be found in cities like New York and Boston gives some 
material on which to proceed in community ventures. But it must 
be emphasized that school lunches are never expected to " pay their 
way " in the same sense as that in which a middle-class community 
kitchen must pay its way to be self-respecting. The items in the cost 
price of the food of a community kitchen must include every detail 
of a commercial venture except the profit to the enterpriser, with a 
lessened bill for advertising and distribution. 

In order that such conscientious experimentation in communal 
feeding as shall be made in the near future may profit by past mis- 

* Forecast Magazine, Ma.v, 1918. 






58 AGENCIES FOE THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

takes, there are certain items of practical advice to be gathered from 
other ventures. 

Mr. Harris, in his chapters on cooperation in America, says that 
a review of cooperative ventures among us shows that there has al- 
most never been a true cooperating group back of the undertaking. 
A true cooperating group will go into such an undertaking with the 
purpose of seeing it through; not just to stay in until the novelty is 
worn off or until hard times appear, as they do at some stage in all 
ventures. It takes courage, persistence, and business management, 
as in any commercial undertaking, to make a communal kitchen 
succeed. 

There must be the most careful bookkeeping and checking up of 
costs from the beginning. Mrs. Abel's suggestion of a stock company, 
seconded by Mr. Harris, and put in practice by the American Cooked 
Food Service, is excellent, and a step in the direction of the American 
way of doing things. 

While emphasizing the business side of such a venture, it must bo 
remembered that there is a difference between a " commercial success " 
and a "national advantage." And one of the most patriotic of the 
purposes of communal kitchens in America will be to take advantage 
of our recent awakening to the fact that with the plenty about us we 
are not " well fed " in a dietetic sense ; that we all, rich and poor alike, 
need to be taught to eat the right things in the right combination. 
The educational part of this venture is as important in the long run 
as the economic, even though it may not make so strong a popular 
appeal. 

In America, we have not passed the stage of the volunteer worker. 
Her energy and enthusiasm have been a national asset since our en- 
trance into the war. It seems almost a gratuitous insult to call at- 
tention to her shortcomings when she shows none, in America. But 
the lesson to be learned from European experience is that she must be 
used sparingly and under strict supervision by trained workers in a 
venture which expects to establish itself as a permanent part of the 
life of a community. The trained worker receiving a regular wage 
is at her post at regular hours. What she may lack in enthusiasm she 
makes up in scientific training or technical skill. And the experience 
of all countries seems to indicate that there is likely to be a certain 
atmosphere of condescension creep in when volunteer workers are 
used, to which the English and American attitude of mind is very 
hostile. The advice of the British ministry of food is to use the 
volunteer worker not at all. except possibly in small communities. 
It is barely possible that one of the reasons for the emphatic rejec- 
tion of the communal kitchen in Germany as a permanent institution, 
is the long history of the Volkskiichen as an accepted charity of 



AGEXCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 59 

better-class women. "In no sense a charity" must be the motto of 
any communal kitchen which is to be a permanent success in America. 

It is to be noted from the experience of England and Germany that 
the training of the dietitian is not sufficient for success in a com- 
munal kit (hen. There must be special training for such work 
<»\ er and above the general training. Munich, as long ago as Novem- 
ber. L916, was offering a special training for the public kitchens; and 
within a month after the Kitchens order was promulgated by the 
British ministry of food, such a course was offered in London. It 
might be well for all departments in American colleges training 
women in domestic science to introduce into their courses such special 
training lor communal kitchen work as is available, including special 
experimentation in cooking in large quantities, together with studies 
of the food habits of our population. It is to be remembered that the 
dietitian can not ride roughshod over the customs and traditions of 
the various races and religions, even though she may invoke tha 
authority of science in her support. 

And finally, we still have almost everything to learn. We shall 
therefore make mistakes. Workers must especially remember that in 
fairness to all, failures must be reported as frankly and fully as suc- 
cesses. But if there is some central organization through which the 
successes and mistakes can be pooled, we shall learn quickly. We 
shall start, as in the war, with the advantage, of the experience of 
others on which to build. Pure imitation will not do the work. The 
initiative peculiarly the facult}' of the American soldier is present in 
the rest of the population, and will be used to adapt agencies for 
meeting the food situation as well as for inventing other tools for 
winning the war and for meeting the problems of the after-the-war 
period. 



CONCLUSIONS. 



When this survey was undertaken it was thought that such a study 
might make possible a definite answer to the question whether or not 
some form or forms of group or community cooking could be recom- 
mended for adoption as a general conservation measure in the 
United States. Whatever might have been the case had the war con- 
tinued, the situation is now (January, 1919) by no means sufficiently 
acute to expect success for such a radical change of habits on the part 
of any large number of families. Nevertheless it may be worth while 
to state briefly some of the general conclusions to which a study of 
such enterprises leads. 

These conclusions are based not only on the material included in 
the earlier sections of this report, but also on opinions expressed in 
conversation with persons who have had practical experience with 
such work. Many of these workers were unwilling to be quoted 
officially, but a safe generalization from their personal opinions is 
that in America there is at present nothing encouraging to the en- 
thusiast on communal cooking. The causes for failure in the past 
they consider practically the same as those for the failure of most 
cooperative enterprises in this country — unwillingness of Americans 
to submit long to the restraints which cooperation requires, and a 
lack of leaders who combine adequate ability in planning, buying, 
cooking, and serving food with general administrative ability. 

This does not mean that local enterprises undertaken to meet some 
special needs may not be as successful as a considerable number 
have been in the past. Indeed, it is possible that these will be more 
numerous in the next feAV months and that a few may become perma- 
nent institutions for the benefit of special groups who for one reason 
or another find the preparation of food in the home especially diffi- 
cult and uneconomical. 

If such attempts are made, it is very much to be hoped that 
they will be reported freely and with as much detail and frankness 
regarding failures as regarding successes. Many pioneers in this 
field have been too disheartened to give others the benefit of their 
experiences. In a line of work so little understood and so full of 
pitfalls, each worker needs to know what to avoid as well as what to 
60 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 61 

do, and a failure, carefully analyzed and reported, may help as much 
in the end as a chance success. 

The form of organization and financing likely to prove most suc- 
I'nl will vary according to the conditions under which the work is 
done especially the character of the group which is to be served. 
Of the three general types — cooperative, charitable, and self-sustain- 
ing with Limited profits— the third seems most promising because 
most in accord with American customs and ideals. Apparently we 
shall not come to cooperation of the Rochdale type in this country 
until economic pressure is much greater than at present. While we 
are ready and eager to extend charitable aid in cases of distress, we 
prefer to consider this as an emergency measure and to try to remove 
the underlying causes of the distress rather than to continue alleviat- 
ing it by almsgiving. It seems to us more in accordance with our 
democratic tradition to develop an institution which pays its way 
throughout, giving its financial backers a legitimate but carefully 
limited profit on their investment. and its patrons whatever advan- 
tages of price may come from large scale operation, reduction of 
profits, etc. Even with this type of organization, we can not hope 
for lasting success unless we provide strict business methods and 
well-trained workers. Many experienced observers believe it is 
equally important to rule out such unpaid assistance as free office 
space and volunteer helpers. 

There seems to be a difference of opinion as to the number of 
patrons necessary to make a group cooking center self-supporting. 
Estimates run from 100 to 1.000. The American Cooked Food Service 
limits to 500 the number to be served from one station, because it 
can not retain the homelike quality of the food when catering to a 
larger number. 

There is similar divergence of opinion as to the best method of 
purchasing. Some prefer separate purchasing departments, some 
leave the marketing to the supervisors, some buy only in large quan- 
tities, some partly in large, partly in small. Several kitchens patron- 
ize local retail markets. All agree that the purchaser must be thor- 
oughly conversant with marketing conditions and be in constant 
touch with the person responsible for planning menus. 

Most experienced workers do not believe in planning menus too 
long ahead because of the possibility of unexpected developments in 
the market. All agree that to repeat the same list of menus week 
after week is bad policy because the patrons notice and dislike the 
appearance of certain dishes on certain days. A resourceful planner 
can avoid this without difficulty, and even a less competent one can 
adopt a schedule for a few more than seven days and so lessen the 
unpleasant effect on the patrons. 



62 AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

It is not feasible to increase the number of portions to be made 
according to a given recipe by simply increasing the quantities of 
the ingredients. Larger quantities may require different methods of 
manipulation and almost invariably require differences in the pro- 
portion of flavorings which can be learned only by testing. 

The number of workers required to a given number of patrons bus 
been worked out in several cases. In a standard British public kitchen 
commencing with 1,000 portions, a staff of six trained persons is re- 
quired ; a supervisor, two cooks, two kitchen maids, and a cashier. It 
has been found that the average output for each member of the slat! 
is 200 portions until 1,200 are reached, and beyond that number 300 
portions for every additional member of the staff. When this 
statement was submitted to the head of a large central kitchen in this 
country and to the supervisor of another smaller kitchen which 
serves about 250 families, they called attention to the fact that the 
English cooks and general workers are usually more carefully trained 
and more accustomed to certain specific kinds of work than are 
American workers. Moreover, there is a carefully worked out spe- 
cial training now given to these workers in European countries, 
which woidd need to be provided in America if the kitchens were 
opened in any great numbers. 

The central kitchen of the school lunch committee of the New 
York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor employs 
90 persons in its service to 35 schools. The plan of the Boston 
kitchen calls for a kitchen superintendent who is a trained domestic 
scientist, two cooks, a storeroom woman, and three kitchen women. 
This is for the central kitchen alone, and does not include the service 
in the schools. The workers in the American Cooked Food Service 
state that this question is still in process of standardization with 
them. The labor situation in the United States makes this matter 
an especially difficult one at present. The social stigma on domestic 
service of all kinds, felt more keenly in America than in European 
countries, and the tempting openings in other industries, make it 
very difficult to obtain competent help. The system of bonuses 
adopted in the British kitchens, and the appeal to personal interest 
in the success of the kitchen might prove stimulating enough to war- 
rant a trial here. In the semi-philanthropic kitchens, in many cases 
only one worker, the cook, is paid. In others, one regular helper is 
added. The cashier and those who serve are volunteer workers. 

There is comparatively little information as to the exact amounts 
of food, fuel, and labor saved by group cooking, or of the reductions 
in cost which it brings. One difficulty in such calculations is of 
course that so far no method has been worked out for valuing the 
unpaid labor in the household. An attempt to do this in a coopera- 
tive canning kitchen run by the Federal Food Board in New York 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 63 

City was significant as to the attitude of some women on this point. 
The workers in this kitchen included women from the neighboring 
tenement district and the arrangement was that they were to be paid 
in fruits and vegetables canned at the kitchen. The women refused 
to consider their time as part of the cost of the product because 
the}- resented the idea of having a market value placed on their 
work. It is true that the labor in the home is not so wearing as the 
kind of work which these women could get if they went out for em- 
ployment. They keep their own hours, can rest when they are tired, 
and do not work under supervision. The report of the New York 
school lunch committee calls attention to the fact that one cause 
of malnutrition among children is that in so many cases the mother 
saves her strength and money for the evening meal when the father 
comes home and the children are left to forage for themselves at 
noon. A curate of one of the city churches said that many of these 
women do practically no work during the day, but depend upon the 
delicatessen shops on the block for the food for the family. This 
statement, however, is contradicted by a well known social worker 
who has done an important work in the investigation of conditions 
in the delicatessen shops of the city. These facts are stated, not as 
bearing directly on the subject, but as showing the extreme difficulty 
of any standardization of the labor of woman in the home, which 
varies so greatly from family to family. The demand for married 
women in war industries can hardly be taken as giving a wage norm. 
But the permanent after-war demand should give us valuable and 
reliable standards for the economic value of women's work, for which 
we have always had need in order to answer this question as to the. 
equation between the "value in use" and the "value in exchange" 
of woman's work. 

There are interesting answers to the question how the patrons take 
to the idea of public kitchens. One kitchen was well on its way to 
success when the gossip of the neighborhood circulated a report that 
it was a " communistic " experiment which was aimed at the home. 
Many of the patrons then stopped coming, as they said, on the advice 
of their spiritual advisers. This seems a common experience. It 
can be met by calling attention to the scarcity or cost of food an i 
fuel, and by the necessity of the conservation of the nation's health 
by the assurance of wholesome food at a reasonable price. 

Another kitchen got into trouble in a Jewish community by for- 
get fulness of the danger of ritual uncleanness. Care must be taken 
not to offend religious and national prejudices and customs. 

There are complaints reported that the food is not so "tasty" as 
home food. The English kitchens are making a study of flavorings. 
Then there is complaint of lack of variety and the absence of cer- 
tain dishes, such as omelets. A common complaint and one to which 



64 AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

the final answer is not yet found, is that the food is cold when it 
reaches the home, whether carried cr delivered, and that the warm- 
ing-up process takes away from the fine flavor. 

The organizers of many group and public kitchens have hoped 
that the meals might serve as models of proper food selection and 
preparation and thus lead to better understanding of what makes 
an adequate and attractive diet. Several have tried printing the 
nutritive value of the various dishes on the bills of fare, but it 
seems doubtful whether this has accomplished much. As a rule, the 
demonstration kitchens, in which instruction has been given in can- 
ning, preserving, and the use of food substitutes, have proved a bet- 
ter means of introducing simple instruction in the principles of 
nutrition. Undoubted^, there is in this country much more general 
and intelligent interest in such questions than there ever has been 
before. This together with the increasing problem of paid labor 
for women may furnish the incentive to a greater interest in the 
questions with which this survey deals, and thus lead to practical 
steps to eliminate, by some means or other, part of the wastefulness 
and inefficiency which now accompany the preparation of food in 
many American homes. 



Appendix A. 

STUDY OF EQUIPMENT FOR A CENTRAL KITCHEN, BY THE 
WOMEN'S EDUCATIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL UNION OF BOS- 
TON. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The research department of the Women's Educational and Industrial Union 
has made a study of the equipment of a central kitchen based chiefly ou facts 
gathered at the kitchen used in preparing noon luncheons for 19 Boston second- 
ary schools. This kitchen inherited the fine traditions of the pioneer effort to 
apply scientific knowledge to large-scale preparation of food, started under 
the leadership of Mrs. Ellen F. Richards and Mrs. Mary Hinman Abel, in 1890. 
The early New England kitchen began supplying hot lunches for school children 
in 1894, and, when its activities were transferred to the Women's Educational 
and Industrial Union in 1907, this service was continued. The rapid develop- 
ment of the work made necessary a separate establishment where all foods 
except bread and cake 1 are prepared. The union has kindly permitted the 
use of the following extract from a study made by Mrs. M. S. Kirshman, under 
the direction of Dr. Lucile Eaves. 

FORMS OF KITCHEN EQUIPMENT. 

Kitchen equipment may be considered conveniently under four headings: 
First, lixed equipment such as stove, oven, refrigerator, and sinks; second, mov- 
able equipment such as tables, desks, etc.; third, the special utensils necessary 
for tin' particular types of dishes selected for the menus; and fourth, the gen- 
eral utensils. 

The Boston kitchen has six pieces of lixed equipment: (1) Hotel gas range 
with hood, (2) a double deck oven, (3) a steam cooker with one soup and one 
vegetable kettle, (4) a refrigerator and stock cooler, (5) a porcelain-lined 
double sink for cleaning vegetables, (G) a double galvanized-iron sink for wash- 
ing pots and kettles. 

The most expensive and generally needed ait ides of the fixed equipment are 
the stove, the refrigerator and the sink. A gas stove is convenient and its use 
will lie economical in many communities. The Boston kitchen uses an eight- 
burnei stove with two ovens below, and lias also a separate double-deck oven. 
When the menu is planned so that the burner and oven space are effectively 
utilized, a four-burner gas stove is sufficient for serving 500 to 800 persons. 
The separate double-deck oven is not necessary even in large schools. The gas 
stoves with heavily insulated walls and tireless cooker attachments are desir- 
ahie hut their initial cost is heavy. If carefully used, however, these stoves 

> The l>aking for the lunch rooms maintained by the union and for the school lunches is 
done in a bakery located at the New England kitchen. A brick oven ;iud power mixers 
arc used. 

65 



66 AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

reduce the gas bill over one-half, which is well worth considering. If gas is 
not available, a kerosene stove probably will answer the purpose even better 
than a wood or coal stove, as its initial cost is low, and it is economical to 
operate from the standpoint of both fuel and labor. 

Electric stoves and appliances are coming into greater favor. Electricity has 
nearly all the advantages of gas, is cleaner, requires less labor to run and does 
not consume the oxygen as does the gas or the coal stove. The even heat lessens 
the labor of watching the foods, prevents loss from burning, and makes pos- 
sible uniform standards of production. Power rates must be obtained to make 
the use of electric cooking and serving appliances economical, but many cities 
and towns, including even the smaller ones, are willing to give such rates in 
order to use surplus electric power during the day. Waste in the use of elec- 
tricity Is due to the time which it takes to reach the cooking temperature. This 
is especially noticeable when boiling water. Some companies are meeting this 
difficulty by combining the gas and electric stoves so that electricity is used 
only where long cooking is desired. Fireless cooking principles may be applied 
and the electricity turned off when the desired temperature is reached. The 
length of time, required to obtain this temperature and the period which it can 
be maintained without power, should be carefully tested before purchasing any 
stove which must be used with carefully conserved heat. 

The Schenley High School in Pittsburgh, which has its own bakery, has an 
electric oven, electric dough mixer, and an electric proving box. It also has a 
gas oven. Recently, a number of commercial cafeterias have placed electric 
stoves and ovens in their kitchens. High praise is always given by those who 
use the electric ovens to the standard of the products obtained. 

The steam cookers are practical, where it is possible to connect with an 
outside steam system or where the school lunch department must supply its 
own hot water. Formerly from 20 to 25 pounds of pressure was considered 
necessary; it is now known that from 15 to 20 pounds of pressure with longer 
cooking gives better results. ' All vegetables are better in texture when cooked by 
steam ; the mineral matter is also conserved. Steam heat is excellent for the 
making of soups and of white sauce. 

REFRIGERATORS. 

Refrigerators are for three purposes: First, to cool the materials which are 
to be served; second, to keep the dishes which are prepared on one day for 
use on the next; and third, to care for leftovers. The first is important since 
nearly all foods are served either cold or hot ; the second is not necessary unless 
one kitchen is serving several schools ; the third is of minor consideration since 
with the careful estimation of the requirements, the leftovers should be negli- 
gible. A refrigerator should have such insulation as will maintain a tempera- 
ture between 40 and 50° F. There should be complete circulation of air from 
the ice chest through the other compartments and back over the ice. There 
should be perfect drainage and the lining should be seamless so that every 
part may be cleaned easily. There is economy in the consumption of ice if 
the refrigerator is small enough so that the ice chest may be kept full all of 
the time. With the ice compartment in the upper part of the refrigerator, it is 
possible to drain the water from the side into a container where foods may be 
cooled easily and quickly before placing them in the ice chest. 

An outside door to the ice compartment is sometimes convenient for tilling, 
and ice may be saved during the cold months by opening this door. On 
the other hand, this arrangement is less important than haying the refrigerat i 
near the place where it is needed. In one kitchen visited the refrigerator was 



AGENCIES FOU THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 67 

over twenty feet from the stove and the work table. The insulation which 
does not let out the cold should not let in the heat, so that, if necessary, a 
well-insulated refrigerator may stand near the stove. 

An artificial ice plant may be economical if it can be connected with the 
power which is used for some other purpose. The Schenley High school in 
Pittsburgh has this system. At the Boston kitchen, ice is used. The refrig- 
erator and stock cooler are built on the west side of the kitchen. When ninny 
lint dishes are made on one day to be held over for delivery on the following 
morning, a large refrigerator is necessary. 



There are five requisites for a good sink: It should bo durable, and of a 
material easily cleaued ; it should drain well; the plumbing should be open; 
and it should be of such a height that the worker will not need to stoop. Porce- 
lain is the best generally used material. An enamel iron sink may crack. 
Other materials used are galvanized iron, wrought iron, zinc, slate, soapstone, 
and a composition such as " Alharene." A commercial sink with open plumbing 
is far better than a zinc or slate sink set in a wooden frame, as the cracks 
in the latter make them hard to clean. Soapstone sinks often drain poorly, 
and the same is true of the galvanized-iron sinks, although they stand harder 
general wear than porcelain or enamel. 

Drain boards can he placed on both sides. If only one drain board is used, 
it should he at the left. A drain board made of wood with a zinc covering 
wears well, but the drain boards made as a part of the sink are more easily 
cleaned. If no drainboard is used, a zinc-covered table at the side will prove 
Satisfactory. Double wash tubs are very useful for the school lunch kitchen; 
the dishes may be washed in one compartment using a rubber stopper over 
the drain while the other compartment is used for rinsing. The second com- 
partment may also be used for cleaning vegetables. In the Boston kitchen, it 
is found necessary to have a second double sink which is used only for the 
cleaning of vegetables. 

Sink attachments of metal plate are good. The faucets should allow a con- 
tinuous flow of water, as those which must be held while the water flows are 
consumers of time and energy and do not permit the flushing of drains. High 
faucets are more convenient. If low, they should be capped with rubber to 
prevent the breakage of dishes. 

The real use of a trap is to make a seal which will not allow foul gases to 
reach the room. This water seal should be perfect whatever the type chosen. 

I.AIHin-SAVIXG MACHINERY. 

All equipment is selected with the idea of saving labor, but there are certain 
machines which are known especially as " labor-saving devices." The Boston 
kitchen lias only four machines, aside from the steam cookers, which can be 
classed strictly as labor saving. They are (1) a meat slicer. 1 (2) a meat 
chooser and motor, (8) an egg beater and motor with 2 containers of 32 quarts 
each, and (4) a potato masher. No data are available showing the amount 
of labor which can be saved by these means. A year ago one school visited 
put into the kitchen and serving room 81,000 worth of labor-saving machinery 
which included a steam cooker, a dishwasher and a steam table. The superin- 
tendent of the lunch room claimed that the number served had doubled while 
at the same time two less workers were employed. Time and labor will be 
save.l by installing first the labor-saving machines which are used frequently. 

» The bread slicer ts listed trader " packing-room equipment." Slu-er.s may be bought 
which will serve foe both bread and meat. 



68 AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

Those used loss may be added if the funds and space allow. No new device 
should be purchased unless it is first thoroughly tested, as the keeping of such 
utensils in order sometimes requires labor out of proportion to the tasks which 
they perform. 

Movable equipment in the Huston kitchen. 
Description. Price. 

1 truck (3 shelves) $27.50 

2 tables, zinc covered, 2 feet 2 inches by 1 foot 3 inches, height 19 inches. 12. 00 

4 tables, zinc covered, 3 feet by 2 feet, height 29 inches * 14. 40 

1 table, zinc covered, 3 feet 6 inches by 2 feet, height 29 inches * 4. 90 

1 table, zinc covered, 3 feet G inches by 2 feet, height 29 inches 2 7. 50 

1 table, zinc covered, 6 feet by 2 feet 6 inches, height 30 inches (shelf 

below) 8.20 

2 tables, zinc covered, 5 feet 4 inches by 2 feet 9 inches and 7 feet by 

2 feet S inches (with elevated shelves and on horses) 1 11. 66 

1 desk ■ 7.80 

15 wooden chairs with backs 15.00 

1 4-foot stepladder 1. 20 

1 stool, low, for cook to stand on 2.50 

1 rack for time cards 5. 00 

1 platform scales 14.50 

1 storeroom scales ! M. 50 

1 clock 2. 70 

1 electric fan 12.50 

12 14-inch japanned trays for employees' lunches 2. 70 

6 garbage barrels and covers 21.00 

2 coal hods _ 1.30 

4 Dish-towel racks 2. 40 

3 paper towel racks 3.00 

2 brooms . 90 

2 dustbrushes 1. 50 

2 dustpans '. . 50 

1 patent mop wringer 2.00 

2 mop heads and handles . 70 

6 scrub brushes 1. 20 

4 scrub pails 1. 00 

6 floor cloths .38 

1 fire extinguisher 6. 50 

1 fire blanket 1.19 

3 pails filled with sand . 75 

WORK TABLES AND TRUCKS. 

Work tables are either fixed or movable. Fixed tables have several disad- 
vantages ; they are more expensive than is necessary for a school lunch kitchen 
and are generally fitted with drawers which are hard to clean. If a fixed table 
is used, vitrified tiling makes a good but expensive top ; composition tops are 
likely to crack. But a work table does not have to be expensive in order to 
stand hard wear; well scrubbed, thick, hard-wood table tops are common in 
the best equipped hotel kitchens. Oilcloth covering is not durable, and soon 
becomes unsanitary. Movable tables Lave a distinct advantage because they 
can be placed where needed and the floor around them can be cleaned easily. 

1 Articles bought previous to July, 1014, cost estimated. 
* Used to bold the potato masher and motor. 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 69 

Steel tables, which are often found in hospitals, are excellent if rubber mats 
are used to prevent breakage. Extra table tops which are put onto horses 
and fastened to the wall so thai they can ho let down are useful. There is an 
advantage in locating tables near the wall beeuse utensils and supplies can 
be kept conveniently on shelves fastened to the wall. If this is not possible, 
shelves may be built across the top of the table, placing them at the center or 
back of the table, or making them so that they will slide from one side to 
the other. A pastry table fitted with zinc-lined dour bins is also good. 

Two of the tables listed in the Boston equipment are only 19 inches high — 
just high enough to hold the utensils into which the soup is strained. When 
the kettles are too high, the cook stands upon a stool. The low tables are 
also of the right height to hold the heavy mixing pans. Such tables should 
have castors, as it was noticeable that the tables with castors stood firmly 
even under the heavy work of mixing. If the stove and work tables are of the 
same height, it is possible when the tables are on castors to slide the heaviest 
utensils from the stove to the tables and to move them wherever desired, thus 
saving much lifting. 

The truck of galvanised iron with removable shelves, also of galvanized iron, 
is used to carry hot dishes, or to hold them while cooling, before placing them 
in the refrigerators; also to take food to the packing room. The top shelf 
of the truck should be of the same height as the stove and tables. Four- 
wheeled trucks which are easily turned are excellent for carrying food and 
utensils. 

HEIGHT OF EQUIPMENT. 

Since stooping and reaching take extra energy, tables, sinks, and stoves 
should be sufficiently high so that the worker can stand erect, or else a con- 
venient height for sitting at the table. Shelves should not be too high or too 
low, but adapted to the average worker. The average work table on the mar- 
ket is about 2S inches high ; while for the average worker, it should be at least 
32 inches. The same question should be considered in connection with the 
height of the stove and of the working base of the sink which is nearly always 
set too low. 

Special equipment in the Boston kitchen. 
Description. Price. 

2 40-quart gray enamel dish pans for mixing $G. 00 

3 17-quart gray enamel dish pans for mixing 6.00 

4 tin bowls for whipping 5.00 

2 15-inch iron frying pans 1. 50 

3 6-quart agate saucepans and covers for vegetables 2. 70 

6 18-quart enamel double boilers for white sauce 30. 00 

2 50-quart copper stock pots for soup 28. 00 

2 lacks for copper stock pots 3. 00 

40 quart cast aluminum stock pots for soup 7!>. 20 

12 12-quart block tin milk cans for soup (covers harnessed on) '15.00 

8 10-quart block tin milk cans for soup (covers harnessed on) a 9. 60 

12 6-quart block tin milk cans for soup (covers harnessed on) '8.00 

8 3-quart block tin milk cans for soup (covers harnessed on) M. 40 

14 6-gallon galvanized iron cans for soaking beans 36. 40 

1 15-foot hose for carrying water to beans 1. 50 

1 heavy iron baker's peel for taking beans from oven 1.00 

96 S-quart stone bean pots 10. 50 

48 12-quart round heavy block tin pans for hot specials * 14. 00 

36 10-quart round heavy block tin pans for hot specials . '9.60 

24 8-quart round heavy block tin pans for hot specials ' 6. (JO 



70 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 



Description. Prloe. 

18 6-quart round heavy block tin pans for hot specials '$4.13 

18 4-quart round heavy block tin pans for hot specials l 3. 75 

12 2-quart round heavy block tin pans for hot specials 1 1. 10 

12 iron baking pans for holding custards in the oven 12. 00 

24 block tin counter pans for holding custard cups while cooling G. DO 

4S dozen white enamel custard cups ~>2. so 

12 aluminum pudding pans for jellies l 7.8Q 

12 12-quart agate pudding pans for jellies '3.00 

6 10-quart agate pudding pans for jellies ' 2. •">_! 

6 2-quart agale pudding pans for jellies * 1. 50 

G 1-quart agate pudding pans for jellies *1.15 

2 6-quart enamel pails with covers 2. So 

2 strainers to fit 40-quart aluminum stock pots 3. 20 

2 round block tin hotel colanders (1 fine mesh fur rice, 1 coarse mesh 

for macaroni) 9. 00 

6 16-quart fiber pails for storage of salt, sugar, etc 1. 50 

12 1-quart " Lightning" jars for storage . 90 

12 1-pint "Lightning" jars for storage .73 

With the above equipment the following kinds and amounts of foods are pre- 
pared daily, one variety of each kind being served each day. 



Kinds. 



Full 
capacity. 



Soup 

Hot special 

Jelly 

Pudding . . . 

Sauce 

Salad , 

Custard 



i Articles also sent to schools; three sets of these articles are kept— one is in use, one en route, and one at 
the schools. 
2 Individual cups. 




MATERIALS FOB UTENSILS IN SPECIAL EQUIl'MKXT. 

Four facts should lie considered in the choosing of general utensils: First, 
the chemical reaction of the foodstuffs upon the material; second, weight; 
third, durability; fourth, ease of cleaning. The fact that foods vary in the 
amount of acid or alkali present means that different materials may be se- 
lected for different purposes. While the initial cost of enamel ware or tin 
plate is less, they are not so durable as aluminum. Durability, in the long 
lain, affects the price; while ease of cleaning affects the cost of labor. The 
weight of utensils is important since the energy utilized varies directly with 
the weight. Aluminum probably answers all four of the above tests best. The 
physiological effect of slight amounts of aluminum which may be absorbed with 
food; is still a disputed question, but probably there is no greater danger to health 
from it than from the euamel chippings which invariably come with the mast 
careful use of the best enamel ware. Cast aluminum certainly is generally 
considered best for the larger utensils. It is noted that enamel dish pans i • 
used in place of mixing bowls, as they are found better in the large sizes used. 
AVhen not in use these pans may be hung on nails on the walls. In replacing 
the round pans made of block tin, used lor hot specials, and of agateware used 
fur the pudding pans, it is the intention to substitute aluminum. 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 71 

General utensils used in the Boston kitchen. 

Description. Price. 

'.) hand strainers $1.20 

1 flour sifter .•_•(> 

2 20-inch handles cast-iron tinned skimmers . r>.) 

4 1-gallon tin measures 3.00 

2 1-quart tin measures .40 

6 l-cup tin measures .go 

1 1-peek wooden measure'. . :;:; 

6 G-quart enamel pitchers 5. 40 

3 3-quart enamel pitchers 2.25 

1 nickel teakettle 2.00 

4 meat boards; 18 hy 12 inches 2. no 

1 chopping tray 3. 10 

2 wooden potato mashers (hotel size) .SO 

3 wooden butter paddles for putting hot dishes into pans . 00 

1 hand potato ricer .22, 

1 rolling pin . 20 

3 tin scoops 1.20 

1 glass lemon squeezer .08 

2 egg beaters .40 

3 heavy-wire French whips 1.65 

3 medium-wire French whips 2. 70 

6 1-quart long-handled dippers for soup 1.20 

8 carving knives 8. DO 

3 chopping knives 1.05 

12 vegetable knives .99 

2 18-inch handle iron forks for lifting meats .80 

6 long-handled iron spoons .30 

6 short-handled iron spoons . 30 

12 tin tablespoons .25 

24 tin teaspoons .25 

1 ice pick . 20 

1 gas lighter .25 

The Boston kitchen is not necessarily a standard for other kitchens in the 
materials selected. It is. however, a tine example of a reasonably inexpensive 
outfit capable of turning out a large; amount of well-cooked food. The total 
expenditure for partitions, plumbing, lighting, and all other equipment was 
only $3,000; over one-third of which was used for the first three items. 

\> MBEB AXI) DTTTIES OF THE KITCHEN EMPLOYEES IX THE BOSTON KITCHEN. 

Kitchen superintendent. — The kitchen superintendent, who is in direct charge 
of the kitchen, is a trained domestic scientist. The day's orders for dishes are 
sent to her by one of the clerks; she returns to the clerk a requisition for the 
food materials required. The superintendent then posts the recipes in the 
exact amounts required where they are available to the kitchen force. She is 
responsible for all of the recipes used and is constantly experimenting with 
them to increase the nutritive value of the food, decrease its cost, and to improve 
its flavor and appearance. Her desk is so located that she can supervise every 
part of the kitchen, and she gives such assistance with all parts of the work 
a< is necessary to insure every detail being carried on efficiently. The kitchen 
superintendent also has charge of the entire building and is responsible for the 
kitthen and packing-room employees as well as for the janitor. 



72 AGENCIES FOR THU SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 

Head cook. — The head cook begins at 7 in the morning 1 to place the food 
cooked the day before where it can be quickly sent to the packing room. Her 
one duty during the day is the preparation of the hot specials. 

Assistant cook. — The assistant cook arrives at 6 in the morning in order to 
prepare the employees' breakfasts. During spare moments of the early morn- 
ing hours she may assist in frosting the cakes. The assistant cook is responsi- 
ble for custards, sandwich mixture, and the employees' breakfasts and lunches. 

Storeroom woman. — The storeroom woman arrives at 5 in the morning in 
order to take materials from the storeroom, and make the soups which are 
prepared just before they are sent out. She attends to the frosting of the cakes, 
work which is also done in the morning the goods are sent. Every Tuesday 
and Wednesday she has full charge of cooking the beans. 

Kitchen icomen. — There are three kitchen women who are employed in slic- 
ing meats, peeling vegetables, looking over beans, and washing dishes. One 
of these women arrives at 5 in the morning and cuts all of the bread used in 
the packing room ; another comes at 6 and works one-half of her time each 
day in the packing room. 

Equipment for packing room. 

1. General equipment. 

A. Stationary : 

1 cabinet for left-over breads, galvanized iron, 4 feet 4 inches by 2 

feet 3 inches, height 5 feet 20 inches $130.00 

1 cabinet for storing packing supplies 20. 00 

B. Labor saving machinery : 

1 bread cutting machine and motor : 62.00 

C. Movable equipment: 

3 tables, zinc covered elevated shelves (shelf for paper below) 
4 feet 8 inches by 5 feet, for making sandwiches and packing 

cakes and sandwiches 65. 00 

1 table, zinc covered (on horses, elevated shelves) 7 by 2 feet for 

packing hot specials, salads and custards 11. 67 

1 table, zinc covered, 8 by 2 feet for bread cutting machine 9. 00 

1 table, zinc covered, 5 feet 6 inches by 3 feet for bread cutting 5. 25 

1 table, zinc covered, 3 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches for bread 

cutting 4. 00 

1 table, 3 by 2 feet for general use 2.00 

1 rack, wooden for cake 23. 00 

1 rack for labels 5.00 

1 desk 9.60 

1 desk chair 1/50 

9 chairs used for employees' meals 14. 50 

1 clock 2. 70 

1 paper towel holder 

1 paper towel basket 

1 wastebasket, metal 1. 50 

2 brooms .90 

1 dustpan and floor brush . 75 

1 dustpan and brush for table .75 

2 brushes for scrubbing .40 

1 Massachusetts laws allow women to work M hours a week. Those women work 48 
hours, though the hours each day vary from on the first 4 days of the week to 5 on 
Friday and 7 on Saturday. 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 73 

C. Movable equipment — Continued. 

3 pails, fiber $0.75 

4 floor cloths 25 

2 pails with sand for fire r,0 

1 fire extinguisher q 50 

8 food charts for windows 8.00 

4 frames Cor food charts 47.00 

2. Special equipment. 

A. Packing equipment for transportation: 

1 food carrier for use on motor truck 18.50 

6 6-bushel wooden baskets with covers and partitions 36.00 

3 5-bushel wooden baskets with covers and partitions 15.00 

24 2-busheI wooden market baskets, bail handles 18.00 

12 2-bushel wooden baskets without handles 27.00 

24 custard boxes, galvanized iron. if. by 16 by 'SI inches 30.00 

24 custard boxes, galvanized iron. 1(5 by 7 by 3* inches 20.00 

24 custard boxes, galvanized iron, by 6 by 3 inches 20.00 

6 refrigerator pans for holding ice cream tubs 3.30 

2 *-size barrels, galvanized iron, for waste paper 5.20 

4 twine holders for each end of packing tables 1.00 

B. Packing supplies (six months' supply) : 

1.000 paper bags, No. 8 "Torpedo" for groceries 5.10 

1,000 1-quart paper food boxes, "Purity," for jams, catsup and 

mayonnaise 13. 50 

2.0(H) 1-pint paper food boxes " Purity " for jams, catsups, and 

mayonnaise 17. 50 

2.000 1-quart paper pails, " Waxline " for salads and whip cream 10.00 

2,000 1-pint paper pails, "Waxline" for salads and whip cream__ 8.00 

10.000 9-inch paper pie plates for pies and cakes 13.00 

24 reams paraffin paper 8. 40 

48 bundles wrapping paper 204. 95 

1,000 paper tags . 79 

S,000 paper bags at schools for individual service of cake and candy 6. 91 

2.000 paper bags for selling returned food 5. 76 

3. Utensils: 

8 cake knives 7.20 

36 tin forks . 88 

4 iron long-handled spoons .20 

6 iron short-handled spoons .30 

24 teaspoons . 25 

The packing room superintendent has charge of the packing of the baskets 
which are sent to each school. She checks the orders from each school with the 
food which goes out; later, these sheets are again checked with the sheets show- 
ing the food received at each school. Much of the time of the packing room 
superintendent is spent in visiting schools under the direction of the assistant 
director. 

Nine women, in addition to superintendent, work from 5 to 8.45 in the morn- 
ing in the packing room and then go to the schools. These women work 48 
hours each week. Other assistance is given by the janitor and also by the 
kitchen woman who comes at 6 and cuts the bread. Another of the kitchen 
helpers spends one-half of the day in the packing room assisting the janitor in 
the (loaning. 



AprENDix B. 

SCHEDULES OF EQUIPMENT USED BY THE NEW YORK SCHOOI 
LUNCH COMMITTEE, ASSOCIATION FOR IMPROVING THE CON 
DITION OF THE POOR. 

The following lists were prepared by Miss Elizabeth M. Fee, supervisor: 
MOVABLE EQUIPMENT FOR A KITCHEN FEEDING 500. 



AGATEWAKE. 

4 pudding or cake pans to fit ovens. 
2 ladles for soup or stew (20-inch 

handles). 
2 ladles for cocoa or sauces. 
2 double boilers (largest size). 
1 8-quart boiler. 
8 5-quart pans. 

1 10-quart sauce kettle. 

2 5-quart saucepans. 



1 carving knife. 

1 butcher knife. 
4 case knives. 

2 pacing knives. 

2 long-handled forks (20 inches). 

2 small forks. 

3 tablespoons. 

6 long-handled iron spoons (IS inches). 

1 can opener. 

EARTHENWARE. 

2 4-quart jars (for salad dressing). 
25 custard cups. 

TIN AND WTRE WARE. 

1 apple eorer. 
6 <up cake pans. 

1 colander. 

2 dish pans. 

] flat wire whip (whip). 
1 round wife whip (beater). 

1 (Hist | l,l! I. 

74 



TIN AND WIRE WARE COlltilUied. 

1 grater for lemons. 

12 layer cake pans. 

S loaf cake pans ('oread tins). 

1 long-handled ladle (20 inches). 

1 long-handled skimmer. 

1 fine wire strainer (quart size). 

1 flour sifter. 

1 20-quart soup kettle. 

WOODEN WARE. 

1 bread cutter. 

1 broom. 

1 whisk broom. 

1 mopstick. 

1 scrub brush. 

1 vegetable brush. 

1 washboard. 

1 wooden spoon. 

2 pulp pails. 
1 rolling-pin. 
Platform scales. 
Small scales. 
Hatchet. 

1 fry kettle and basket 

TARLEWARE FOR 5 00. 

Glasses. 

Sauce and vegetable dishes. 

Plates (medium). 

Small plates. 

Bowls. 

Coffee cups. 

Trays. 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 



75 



TABLEWABE FOB 5 00 — Continued. 

Suits. 
Peppers. 
Butter bowl. 
Pitchers for milk. 
Vinegar bottle. 
Mustard bottle. 
Table silver. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

l scrub doth. 

l dozes dish towels. 

(j oven cloths. 

;> dishcloths (for washing dishes), 

G tablecloths. 

1 20-quart soup kettle. 

1 quart measuring cup. 



miscellaneous continued 

2 J-pint measuring cup-:. 

l soap shaker. 

1 soap dish. 

'2 wire dish drainers. 

l glass lemon squeezer. 

1 meat grinder. 

1 garbage can and cover. 

1 crisco cans. 

8 gallon cans and covers for beans, etc. 

i i quart containers. 

4 4-quart containers. 

6 galvanized covers for barrels; 2 18 
inches diameter, 4 20 inches diam- 
eter. 

4 bread baskets. 

2 40-quart milk cans. 



EQUIPMENT OF A VOCATIONAL SCHOOL FEEDING 500. 



MOVABLE EQUIPMENT* 

500 trays. 

500 l aides) ns. 

500 teaspoons. 

500 knives. 

500 forks. 

500 saucers, 5$ inches diameter. 

500 soup bowls. 

500 I »read and butter plates, GJ inches 

diameter. 
500 meat plates. 
3 canisters, small. 
7 ladles. 

I skimmer. 

II colanders, large and small. 

3 wooden spoons. 

1 Chinese strainer. 7 inches diameter. 

2 meat forks. 

G cooking spoons. 
1 broom. 
1 dustpan. 
1 washboard. 
1 rolling pin. 

4 wire egg heaters. 

3 agate pudding pans, 10 Indies di- 
ameter. 

3 agate roasting pans, 12 inches di- 
ameter, 
l agate pot, 2 gallons. 

1 agate pot. 1 gallon. 

2 frying pans, 13 Inches diameter. 
2 frying pans, PA inches diameter. 

2 white enamel dishpans, Lo inches di- 
ameter. 



movable equipment — continued. 

1 while enamel pot, 2 gallons. 

1 agate pot, 5 gallons. 

1 agate stock boiler, 8 gallons. 

1 wooden army pail. 

1 meat chopper. — 

1 scale, small. 

2 steel stock pots. 

1 French frying pan, large. 

2 garbage cans. 

1 grater. 

2 bread pans, (U by 8| inches. 
1 potato masher, wire. 

1 potato pounder, large. 
L mixing howl. 

2 paring knives, Qi inches. 

44 dozen salt and pepper shakers 

(glasses, cups, salt, and peppers). 
1 bread-cutting machine. 

PEB M A X EN T EQUIP M KNT. 

Meat block. 

Scale, Fairbanks' standard. 

Ice chest. 

Urns, milk. 

Urns, coffee. 

Urns, chocolate. 

Urns, hot water. 

Steam table. 

Dish-washing machine. 

< iopper stock pot, 10 gallons. 

Steel sink". 

Garland range, 2 sections. 



Appendix C. 



SCHEDULE OF STANDARDIZED COOKING APPLIANCES, TAKEN 
FROM HANDBOOK OF NATIONAL KITCHENS AND RESTAU- 
RANTS, ISSUED BY THE NATIONAL KITCHENS DIVISION, 
[BRITISH] MINISTRY OF FOOD, JULY, 1918. 



Description of cooking appliance recommended. 


Duty performed. 


Number of appli- 
ances required for 
cooking — 


1,000 
portions. 


2,500 
portions. 


(a) 30-gallon water- jacketed boiler, double cased, with 

rustless cast-iron pan, draw-off taps, lid and 
strainer. 

(b) 30-gallon boiler, single cased (not water jacketed 

but otherwise as above), with two wire baskets. 

(c) Independent cast-iron steamer on stand (simple 

type), with paper-tight door and having auto- 
matic feed; inside size about 7 cubic feet. 

(c. 1) Steamer to fit into boiling pan, with four 
wire travs and front door (tinned plate), or 

(c. 2) Cupboard steamer, independent type, 
with four wire trays and front door (tinned plate). 

(<?) Vertical oven, fitted with five grids, capable of 
being adjusted to various heights, about 50 by 
24 inches inside. 

(<■) Boiling plate 4 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches by 
2 feci !) inches hig.i, on stand, having burners 
and 1 grillcr, with single oven under; inside 
capacity of oven about 7 cubic feet. 

Alternative to above: Small single oven with 
boiling plate at one end, resting on feet at one 
end, and bracketed to oven at other end, above 
5 feet 6 inches over all. 

(/) Serving table and hot closet, size 4 feet 6 inches by 
2 feet b inches by 2 feet J inches high, with plain 
lop. 


Various stews, soups, milk 
puddings, etc. 


2 

1 
2 

lor 2 

1 

1 


3 
2 


Fish, puddings, and vege- 
tables (.steamed). 

Roasting and baking 

Frying, stock, sauces, gra- 
vies, etc. 


3 

2 or 3 

1 

1 







SMAXL EQUIPMENT. 



2 roller towel supports. 

3 menu frames and letters. 
1 clock. 

3 signs marking divisions of counter 
for " Meat," " Pudding," and 
" Soup and vegetables." 

:\ floor mats. 

2o dozen basins (enameled), 3 inches 
diameter. 

! dozen pudding basins (1-quart size). 

3 lard tins, 18 inches to 20 inches. 

1! dozen pie dishes, 1G inches. 

1 milk pail with dipper (4 gallons). 
76 



3G baking dishes of various sizes, 28, 
20, 18, and 1G inches square, and 2 
to 3 inches deep. 

Iron saucepans, tin lined, with two 
bandies — 

3 of 3 gallons. 

4 of 2 gallons. 
1 of 1£ gallons. 

2 frying pans, 16 inches diameter. 
Deep frying pot and tray, 20 inches 

long. 

3 colanders, tin lined, one 18 inches di- 
ameter, two 16 inches diameter. 



AGENCIES FOR THE SALE OF COOKED FOODS. 



77 



Enameled basins, six 20 inches di- 
ameter, four 18 inehea diameter. 
2 kettles. 
2 niineers. 

12 cook's knives, 12, 9, and 5 inches. 
4 forks. 

2 pairs of carvers. 

1 steel. 

1 chopper. 

1 saw. 

1 boning knife. 

1 ice pick for breaking salt. 

6 iron spoons, 12 inches. 

enameled spoons. 

12 wooden spoons, 10 to 24 i riches. 
12 basting spoons. 

3 vegetable peelers. 

1 coarse mesh (conical). 
1 fine mesh (round). 

1 spice box. 
1 flour dredger. 
1 salt box. 

1 pepper box. 
G pot stands. 

2 fish slicers. 
2 graters. 

6 ladles (two of 1 pint, two of J- pint, 
two of i pint). 

Enameled jugs (two of 1 gallon, two 
of I gallon). 

Enameled trays for storing and serv- 
ing food (12, 22 by 16 inches; 12, 
IS by 13 inches). 

Scales to 14 pounds. 

Small scales to 1 pound. 

Pint measure. 

A potato washer. 

1 corkscrew. 

8 to 12 galvanized iron bins for cereals 
I raised a few inches from the 
ound on wooden struts or bat- 
tens). 

Wooden bins for vegetables. 



2 tre>tle tal 

Jars and boxes for dry foods. 

3 wire meat covers, 24, 20, and 12 
inch. 

1 chopping block. 

Weighing machine < 1 hundredweight). 

Scales, .*»; pounds. 

6 scoops. 

A raised platform for sacks. 

1 bass broom. 

l dustpan and brush. 

1 hair broom. 

1 vegetable brush. 

4 scrubbing brushes. 

2 sink brushes. 

2 saucepan brushes. 

2 nail brushes. 

1 set of blacklead brushes. 

i dozen dusters. 

1 dozen rubbers. 

1 dozen towels. 
6 roller towels. 

hand towels. 

2 buckets. 

1 mop. 

4 galvanized baths, 24 inch and 30 

inch. 
1 funnel. 
1 pair of scissors. 

1 tin opener. 

2 skimming ladles. 

2 wire sieves, 16 by 14 inch (one of 

finer mesh). 
2 vegetable presses. 
2 rolling pins, 24 inch. 
6 chopping boards, IS inch and 10 inch. 
2 sanitary dustbins (vegetable matter 

must be kept apart from ashes). 
2 soap dishes. 
1 dozen dish cloths. 
1 pair of steps. 
Chef's caps and coats, and serving 

aprons for staff. 




S RV0FC0 ^Ress 



00i475 ww«I 



